New Strategies to Improve Pork Quality

[mikey]

New Strategies to Improve Pork Quality
THAILAND - From low-tech herb-based feeds to high-tech screening, Thai pork producers have been working hard to overcome longstanding problems of poor quality meat.



Sampran Farm is among the operations that have succeeded with the traditional approach. It mixes herbal plants such as turmeric, fah thalai jone (andrographis paniculata), guava leaves, and cat's whisker in the meal for pigs at different ages.

The company believes in applying local wisdom by using herbal plants to strengthen animal health instead of dosing them with antibiotics that would release hazardous residues and raise concerns among consumers over hygiene.

"We've tried natural-bred farming for a few years and the result is good. Our pigs are healthy and provide better quality meat with less smell," said Subin Treeranuwat, director of Sampran Farm Co.

The herbal approach was the result of a lot of hard work and experimenting by farm staff and veterinarians in an attempt to avoid the use of antibiotics, reports Bangkokpost.com.

For example, guava leaves are put in the feed for piglets to prevent indigestion. Wild mustard and fah thalai jone are added for bigger pigs weighing between 30 and 70 kilogrammes to strengthen their lungs and livers, and turmeric fed to adult pics of 70-100 kg can promote healthiness and tender and juicy meat.

Sampran Farm also breeds pigs on a free-range farm, which is rare in local farming practice. About 6,000 pigs at its 100-rai farm in Kao Sadet in Ratchaburi are allowed to roam around, with shady areas and ponds to help them keep cool."This lessens stress at the farm and before slaughtering, which meets requirements of the international Animal Welfare rules," Mr Subin said.

Free-range farms are rare, and big raisers have opted for closed-farm systems for better disease control.

Diseases such as dysentery, babesiosis and pseudorabies have hurt the Thai swine industry, prompting the use of antibiotics but causing worry among foreign and local buyers over sanitation.

Some producers apply advanced and costly technologies to prevent pigs from contracting diseases at an early stage. Betagro Group, the country's largest pork producer, applies a specific-pathogen-free system (SPF) system to keep parent breeders free of major diseases. This involved raising them on a site in Prachinburi where no other pig farms are found for many kilometres, reducing the risk of diseases spreading. The disease-free breeding cuts the need for antibiotics.

Betagro has invested over one billion baht over the past five years for SPF pork including 270 million-baht in its abattoir, 400 million for its processing plant, and the latest investment, a 190-million-baht pedigreed pig farm. The company produces 1,500-1,700 pigs daily to supply its food business and exports.

Kriengmas Punchai, senior vice-president of swine integration, said while the market for higher-quality meat is rising, the volume remains small compared with meat from traditional farms.

Thailand produces 16 million pigs a year, over 90% from traditional farms.

[mikey]

Effects of Stress On Meat Quality
There are a variety of environmental conditions which can cause stress in animals. Some of these include extremes in temperature, humidity, light, sound, and confinement. Other stressors are excitement, fatigue, pain, hunger, thirst. Movement to unfamiliar surroundings can also cause stress in animals. Stress before slaughter can cause undesirable effects on the end quality of meat such as pale, soft, exudative (PSE) meat and dark firm dry (DFD) meat.

Effects of Stress on the Live Animal
An animal experiencing stress will have physiological changes including changes in heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature and respiration. Several stress hormones are released into the blood stream including epinephrine and norepinephrine. Epinephrine helps to break down glycogen (stored form of glucose in the liver and muscles) into glucose. The stored chemical engergy in glucose and oxygen are converted to energy for the animals muscles. The normal byproducts of this conversion are carbon dioxide and water. When there is not enough oxygen present for this conversion, glucose is still converted to energy, but the byproducts are lactic acid and water.

Effects of Stress on Final Meat Quality
To understand the effects of stress on final meat quality, it is important to understand the relationship of glycogen and lactic acid to pH decline in meat after slaughter. An animal which has not been stressed will have normal levels of glycogen in its body. When the animal is slaughtered and exsanguinated, the metabolic process continues, however there is no longer circulating oxygen. Without the presents of oxygen, the breakdown of glycogen/glucose results in a buildup of latic acid which then causes a drop in pH of the meat.

The final quality of meat is greatly affected by the rate of pH decline in the meat after slaughter. If there was a great lactic acid buildup before slaughter, the pH of the meat declines too quickly after slaughter and a Pale, Soft, Exudative (PSE) condition may develop. As suggested by the name, the affected meat is pale, soft, and fluid may drip from the surface.

At the other extreme, if the animal is glycogen depleted before slaughter the pH may not drop quickly enough after slaughter because there is not enough lactic acid produced. In this case the meat will be very dry and dark in color. This condition is known as Dark Firm Dry (DFD) meat. An additional problem with this type of meat is that it is more susceptible to spoiling since it lacks the lactic acid which normally helps retard growth of microorganisms after slaughter. Note that glycogen deficiency may also be the result of too much physical activity or inadequate diet before slaughter.

Prevention of Stress Related Meat Conditions
Proper handling of animals before and during slaughter can greatly reduce their discomfort and stress. This includes proper feeding and rest as well as use of proper techniques for moving and transporting animals

[mikey]

Yeast Added to Sow Diet Improves Piglet Performance
Top-dressing sow diets with a yeast product greatly improved the growth rate of the litter, according to research by Dr Kim of North Carolina State University.

Dr Sungwoo Kim, North Carolina State UniversityDr Kim has recently joined the Swine Nutrition Group in the Animal Science Department at North Carolina State University and he reported his research into yeast culture in sow diets in the University's Swine News.

"Limited nutrient intake during lactation coupled with increased demand for milk production to support a large litter often leaves sows with severe catabolic condition and may reduce sow longevity," he wrote.

"Alternatively, restricted milk production, which would be less taxing on the sow, will not satisfy the nutrient demands of the piglets. Proper nutritional management to to minimize the negative energy balance of the sow while maximizing milk output to support the growth of her litter is an important issue in swine production."

He added that dietary supplementation of yeast culture is frequently used to improve milk production of dairy cows.

To find out the effects of yeast culture supplementation in sow diets, Dr Kim and his co-workers used 335 sows at a commercial facility. The pregnancy and lactation diets and feeding regimes used at the farm were changed only by top-dressing a yeast culture product on the diet fed to the treated sows.

Performance of sows fed diets with or without yeast culture supplementation
Parity Primiparous Multiparous   P-valued
Treatment CONa YCb CONa YCb SEMc Par Trt Par x
Trt
Sows (n) 21 26 151 137         
Lactation feed intake (kg/sow/day) 6.6 6.8 7.9 7.8 0.1 0.001 0.825 0.303
Litter size at birth (piglets) 11.6 11.3 11.6 11.7 0.1 0.451 0.924 0.528
Litter size at weaning (piglets) 10.8 10.8 10.2 10.3 0.1 0.011 0.502 0.693
Litter birth weight (kg) 14.5 14.3 17.2 17.7 0.2 0.001 0.381 0.575
Litter weaning weight (kg) 70.0 74.8 65.7 69.9 0.7 0.015 0.004 0.884
Daily litter weight gain (kg) 2.64 2.88 2.31 2.48 0.04 0.001 0.008 0.746
Daily pig weight gain (g) 245.1 267.7 227.9 241.4 3.0 0.006 0.013 0.582
Days return to oestrus (d) 5.9 5.7 4.5 5.0 0.2 0.104 0.325 0.619
a CON: sows in the control group
b YC: sows in the treatment group receiving yeast culture (XPC, Diamond V Mills; 12g/day during pregnancy, 15g/day during lactation)
c SEM: pooled standard error of the means
d Par = parity; Trt = treatment; Par x Trt = parity by treatment interaction
From Kim et al., 2008. Asian-Austr. J. Anim. Sci., 21 (7), 1011-1014

This dietary addition of yeast culture improved (P<0.05) the growth of the piglets without affecting the feed intake of the sows or their time to return to oestrus.

Conclusions
Dr Kim concludes that further research is needed to explain these improvements, suggesting that any or all of the following factors may have been affected by feeding the yeast culture:

increased sow milk production
improved milk quality
increased mobilization of sow body reserves and/or
improved nutrient digestibility.
November 2008

Reproduced Courtesy

[mikey]

Are We Underestimating the Impact of PCV2?
David Burch, a veterinarian, with Octagon Services Ltd, Berkshire, United Kingdom, discusses the role of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) in Asian pork production.


Animal Health Industry Consultancy Services

David Burch
Octagon Services Ltd.
Having attended the excellent pig disease review meeting in Chiang Mai, Thailand, I was impressed with the level of research and knowledge on porcine reproductive and respiratory disease virus (PRRSV) that is going on. We also share the problems in Europe and the rest of the world with new strain development, to both the European and American original isolates, and therefore the question of vaccine efficacy. However, have we overlooked the role of PCV2 in the underlying disease and high mortality problems that are still widespread in Asian pig production?

In the UK, we have struggled to get on top of post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) before the recent introduction of PCV2 vaccines and this lead to much confusion over the impact of various other infections, such as PRRS and enzootic pneumonia (Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae) in the respiratory disease complex that we faced. This also caused much frustration trying to control the disease (see Figure 1).



Figure 1: Typical mortality/cull and hospitalization picture in 2200 head finishing shed.
After months of trying to control mortality, hospitalization/wasting problems with various husbandry, stress-reduction methods and PRRS vaccination of piglets, there was no real change in performance. Although PRRSV is meant to exacerbate PMWS development and severity, it was frustrating that vaccination had such little effect.

On the other hand, vaccinating piglets against M. hyopneumoniae did have a beneficial effect (see Table 1). Both mortality and the number of pigs, which were hospitalized (50% of which subsequently died or were destroyed for wasting), improved consistently and lung lesion scores fell quite dramatically.

Table 1: Effect of EP vaccination on mortality, pigs hospitalised and lung lesion scores based on 20,000 finisher pigs.
  Before After Difference
Mortality (%) 6.95 4.15 2.80
Hospitalized (%) 10.58 8.66 1.92
Total (%) 17.53 12.80 4.73 (-27%)
Lung lesion score 11.5 3.7 7.8 (-68%)

It shows how important it is to continue to monitor pneumonic lung lesion scores at the slaughter house, to help with vaccination decision making but it did not completely resolve the whole PMWS problem.



Figure 2: Mortality in vaccinated and control before and after the onset of viraemia.It was not until I visited a trial site in the UK, where a colleague was testing a new PCV2 vaccine for piglets (Boehringer Ingelheim’s Ingelvac CircoFlex) that the significance of PCV2 in this whole wasting syndrome was clearly demonstrated. In a closely monitored UK trial involving 1500 pigs, carried out to Good Clinical Practice (GCP) standards, the weaning to slaughter mortality was reduced from 14.3% to 4.6% (von Richthofen and others, 2007) and bodyweight was increased by 6.8 kg, which would be good by any standards (see Figure 2).

Piglets were vaccinated at 3 weeks of age before moving to the nursery and finishing unit at 4 weeks of age. A unique feature of this trial was the vaccinated and control pigs were kept together in the same pens and were exposed to identical stresses and levels of infection. The PCV2 viraemia (virus circulating in the blood) started from about 6 weeks of age and peaked in the control pigs at 9 weeks of age. The vaccinated pigs peaked one week earlier but at a much lower level and then the viraemia started to fall. The single vaccine shot, primes the immune system to respond to the virus when it starts to multiply, when maternal antibodies start to fade (refer Asian Pork Magazine August/September 2007 p.40-42).

The mortality and growth rate of the surviving pigs starts to drop off in the control pigs in comparison with the vaccinated pigs from the onset of the viraemia and continues until the end of the study at about 23 weeks of age, near to slaughter.

The trial was carried out in a herd which was EP and PRRS free, so the impact of the disease and the efficacy of the vaccine was not masked by other infections. It demonstrates the potential severity of PCV2 infections on their own, even in the chronic phase of the epidemic, which we are in, both in Europe and Asia.

This makes me question whether we are underestimating the impact of PCV2 infections in Asia and possibly over emphasising the problem of PRRS? The Americans did this in the early phase of their PCV2 outbreak, but their focus has definitely shifted to PCV2 control and vaccination.

As PCV2 vaccines are starting to be registered now in Asia, it is hoped that their impact on pig production will be as dramatic as in other regions of the world.

December 2008

[mikey]

Litter Swapping
A practical introduction from BPEX to the swapping of complete litters, rather than cross-fostering individual piglets.



Cross fostering is a recommended practice used to even up litter sizes and piglet birthweights after farrowing. If piglets then start to fall behind, they will often be swapped with a stronger piglet from another litter, or a new litter is created for the fading piglets However, every time piglets are mixed with new litter mates it takes time for them to re-establish the suckling hierarchy, and it can result in a lack of feed intake and reduced performance.

Swapping whole litters will reduce the stress normally experienced by the piglets from being moved and mixed with a group of new litter mates, whilst providing the weaker piglets the opportunity to recover through improved milk intake.

Equipment required Personal Safety
Piglet booster
Fostering box/trolley
Marker pen/spray
Chalk
 N/A

The process

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*
"A strong uniform litter can encourage a sow that is showing signs of poor milk production to start producing milk again"
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*
"As soon as there are signs of reduced performance and one or more piglets are falling behind, the litter swap should be carried out"
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Move the whole litter when it contains a number of piglets that are showing signs of reduced viability, onto a sow which is milking well
The receiving sow must either be a young sow or previously have been a foster sow and she must be suckling a strong and uniform litter
Move the strong litter to the sow from which the poorer litter came
After the swap the sows will follow their normal feed curves
Remember
The age gap between the two litters must not exceed four days
There must be the same number of piglets in both litters
All the piglets must be healthy
The swap between the litters must be direct eg the sows should not be without piglets for an extended period
After the swap give special treatment to the poorer litter eg an extra heat lamp, a squirt of piglet booster etc.
Swapping litters
 
A successful swap will lead to more uniform piglets, improved piglet performance and reduced mortality If the swap is too late, piglets may be too weak to suckle; they will fall behind further and mortality will increase

The swap is likely to fail if:

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*
"Vigilance is key for litter swapping to be a successful management tool"
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The swap is too late; the piglets in the poor litter may be too weak to suckle
The sow with the poor litter is ill
The poor litter is ill
The sow has poor mothering ability and does not let piglets suckle
The litter is restless because the sow is unwilling to let them suckle

December 2008

[mikey]

Can Vitamin C improve Pork Quality
By Eric van Heugten, NCSU Swine Extension - Several investigators have reported improvements in swine growth and meat quality when the animals' diet is supplemented with vitamin C. However, other studies have yielded inconsistent results, as some investigators have documented no effects or even negative effects of vitamin C supplements.

 Dr Eric van Heugten
Swine Nutrition Specialist
North Carolina State University
Vitamin C's effect on pork quality may be the result of changes in the metabolism of glucose and glycogen. One of the breakdown products of vitamin C is oxalic acid, which has been shown to slow the breakdown of glucose. This can result in a reduction of lactic acid production from glucose after slaughter and may prevent the rapid drop in pH associated with poor meat quality. Further, vitamin C has been reported to decrease the severity of pre-slaughter stress response, which further reduces the amount of glucose and glycogen available for lactic acid production.

Vitamin C is water soluble and can easily be supplemented through drinking water for short periods of time and at critical times pre-slaughter. Thus, adding vitamin C to pigs' water could be a practical method of supplying vitamin C and affecting pork quality. But vitamin C is rapidly excreted in the urine when high doses are supplied, and researchers need to understand how rapidly vitamin C is broken down and how soon after consumption it is excreted. With this knowledge, vitamin C can be supplemented more exactly to obtain a positive response in pork quality.

We at North Carolina State University conducted two experiments to investigate the effects of vitamin C supplementation through water on plasma vitamin C and oxalate concentrations and to gauge the effects on meat quality in swine.

Experiment 1 was conducted using 24 crossbred pigs that were fitted with jugular catheters (to allow for blood sampling multiple times) and housed in individual pens in order to properly determine the water and vitamin C intake of each animal. Pigs were given 0, 1,000, or 2,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of vitamin C in their drinking water, supplied through individual water systems. The supplemented drinking water was changed every 12 hours (h) during the 48-h supplementation period in order to minimize degradation of the vitamin during the treatment period. We had previously determined that vitamin C remains stable in water for at least 12 h (recovery after 14 h was 90 percent).

Water supplied to pigs was weighed and recorded in order to determine individual vitamin C intake from the quantity of water that disappeared. Individual water disappearance was measured at 0, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, and 48 hours after supplementation began. In addition, blood samples were collected from all pigs at 0, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h after supplementation began and then again at 0, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h after supplementation ended. Vitamin C and oxalate concentrations were measured in all blood samples.

Experiment 2 used 30 finishing pigs that were housed in individual pens in order to determine individual water and vitamin C intake. Water was supplied through individual systems and was supplemented with 0, 500, or 1,000 mg/L of vitamin C. The supplementation, which started at 7 a.m., occurred over a 48-h period before slaughter. Individual water supplies for all pigs were weighed and recorded in order to determine individual vitamin C intake from the quantity of water consumed.

At the end of the 48-h period, the pigs were transported to a commercial slaughter plant, where they were randomly stunned and exsanguinated in groups of four. The slaughter occurred between 4 h and 5 h after the end of vitamin C supplementation. Carcass temperature was measured at 1 h post-slaughter; loin pH measurements were determined at both initial (1 h post-slaughter) and ultimate (24 h post-slaughter) times.

After chilling for 24 h, the carcasses were processed into primal cuts, and several pork quality measurements were made: degree of fluid loss, visual color scores, objective color scores (using a Minolta color measuring device), and oxidative stability (measure of development of rancidity). Then the pork chops were displayed in conditions similar to retail displays, and visual and Minolta color scores and oxidative stability were measured again.

In Experiment 1, supplementing finishing pigs with vitamin C at 1,000 mg/L or 2,000 mg/L increased the vitamin C concentration in the blood within 6 h of beginning supplementation and maintained greater levels through 48 h. Vitamin C concentrations rapidly declined and reverted to control levels within 2 h after supplementation ended (Figure 1).







As mentioned earlier, one of the breakdown products of vitamin C is oxalic acid. It seemed likely that by increasing vitamin C consumption, the amount of oxalic acid in the blood could be increased. However, supplementing vitamin C in the drinking water had no effect on plasma oxalate concentrations (Figure 2).






However, an injection of vitamin C seemed to make a difference. Following an injection of 22 mg of vitamin C per kilogram (kg) of body weight, pigs showed increased oxalic acid concentrations in the blood after 15 minutes (min) and up to 4 h later. The injection of vitamin C resulted in a much greater increase in the vitamin in the blood than did the water supplementation; therefore, there was more vitamin C that could be converted to oxalic acid.

In our studies, we supplemented vitamin C through the drinking water because this would provide an easy method of administration that could be implemented for a short time. Supplementing finishing pigs with 500 and 1,000 mg/L vitamin C in the drinking water (Experiment 2) did not affect pH values, visual color scores, or oxidative stability (Table1).



Table 1: Effects of vitamin C supplementation through drinking water on pork quality measurements at slaughter (day [d] 0 and during simulated retail display (d4 and d8).3

a Values represent means (+/- SEM a measure of variation) of 10 observations per treatment
b Probability (P) values for linear and quadratic effects. A value of less than 0.05 indicates that we consider the effect significantly.
c Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) expressed as mg/kg malondialdehyde (MDA). Higher values indicate a higher degree of oxidation (increased rancidity)


The failure of vitamin C to improve pork quality in this experiment may be related to the fact that vitamin C concentrations in blood and tissue or oxalic acid concentrations were not affected by supplementation at the time of slaughter. It has been speculated that oxalate influences pork quality by decreasing the breakdown of glucose and, therefore, reduces the formation of lactic acid in the muscle after slaughter. However, it is not known whether vitamin C or oxalic acid concentrations in the blood are indicators of pork quality or whether elevated concentrations are required to be able to positively affect pork quality (Table 1).

In Experiment 2, the negative effects of vitamin C supplementation on pork quality at 500 mg/L but not at 1,000 mg/L were unexpected. Supplementing finishing pigs with 500 mg/L of vitamin C through the drinking water resulted in higher, more undesirable Minolta L* values (paler meat) and increased fluid loss in loin chops from supplemented pigs when compared to the control group. In fact, the carcasses from pigs supplemented with 500 mg/L of vitamin C had a mean Minolta L* value of 54.4, which places those carcasses in the more undesirable PSE (pale, soft, exudative) category of pork quality.

Supplementation of water with vitamin C does not appear to be an effective method of improving pork quality. However, the timing of slaughter relative to vitamin C supplementation may be critical in order to achieve improvements in pork quality. Supplementation at the producer level may not be practical, but supplementation at the slaughter plant may be. More research is required to determine whether timing of supplementation relative to slaughter is important in obtaining a positive response to vitamin C.



Reproduced Courtesy

[mikey]

New Handling Strategies
Minimizing injury and death during transportation and at the packing plant is more important than ever, writes Nick Berry for Farms.com.

 

Improved understanding of the major management factors impacting finisher pig behavioral and physiological responses during handling and transportation has recently emerged as an area of concern in the swine industry. Understanding key factors influencing losses during this time frame will enable targeted interventions to improve both welfare and profitability.



Dr Nick BerryTraditional handling and loading systems have been either poorly planned or not planned in the design and construction of finishing facilities. Therefore, during handling and marketing opportunities the industry is forced to rely heavily on negative motivators or repulsive forces to move animals. Movement is stressful for any size or type of pig, and even under the best conditions can cause significant changes in the pigs’ physiology and behavior. Consequently, this can negatively impact pig performance and meat quality.

Last fall, Premium Standard Farms in Princeton, Missouri, and Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, completed a collaborative effort geared toward evaluating the impact of loading system design on the ease of loading pigs at the time of marketing.

To minimize loading and transportation stress, Alberta Agriculture and Food livestock welfare specialist, Jeff Hill, teamed up with Quality Mechanical to develop a new and improved handling system. The goal was to develop a loading chute design to efficiently move each individual pig in a humane manner, while considering the needs of the caretakers working in the system.

Planning the Project
To tackle the project, Iowa State University animal scientist Anna Johnson and graduate student Nick Berry teamed up to evaluate the usefulness of the new loading system.

Dr Johnson pointed out, "The US swine industry is proactively addressing the complex phenomenon of the non-ambulatory and dead-on-arrival market weight pig. By dissecting the handling and transportation process, research has shown that loading and unloading the pig seems to be the most physiologically stressful part of the process. Therefore, by working on an innovative chute design we hope to reduce some of the identified stressors imposed on the individual animal."

Innovative Design

The new chute design starts with a portable steel frame and an aluminum chute body, which provides a solid and stable loading platform. The entire unit is 30 feet long, including a pivoting level dock to provide the pig entry and exit from the unit. To aid loading crews in positioning the chute, engineers included an extending system to allow for proper positioning to both the barn and trailer. An electric jack screw-system was also incorporated to mechanically raise and lower the chute into proper position.

Another added feature developed by engineers is a unique dock-bumper system. This design incorporates a cover material that has capabilities of expanding up to 500% to create a bubble effect: it traps any air exhausted from the foam cushions as the back of the chute is compressed against the finisher doorway. This inclusion eliminates air and light gaps between the barn and chute that may disrupt pig movement.

The 26-foot, angled section of the chute provides a 6-degree loading angle to the bottom deck and a 17-degree angle to the top deck. The angled section of the chute’s alley uses an inverted stair-step design, with treads spaced 6.75 inches apart and a 2-inch total step height. The inverted stair step has an anti-slip tread edge. The front of the stair tread is angled slightly to allow for natural movement, and encourages pigs to move forward for easier loading onto the truck.

The inside of the chute was carefully designed to mimic the feel of the home pen environment of the pig. The floor surface is coated with Vanberg coating epoxy, with 50% G-diamond grit. The coating replicates concrete colouring and texture, and greatly improves the pigs’ footing. The wall coloring also mimics that of concrete and, in combination with industrial rope lighting, prevents shadowing and bright spots. Together, the two features provide a soft, continuous light source throughout the animal movement area.

Comprehensive Research
To measure the loading system's effectiveness, Drs Johnson and Berry conducted a research study that included comparative analysis of more than 600 loads of hogs. Together, the two researchers evaluated several parameters to evaluate handling intensity, as well as losses incurred during transportation and at the packing plant. The comparison of the new loading system and the traditional system was made on the first pigs marketed from a finishing facility (first pull pigs) and last pigs marketed from a finishing facility (close-out pull pigs). Results indicate that pigs loaded on the new loading system during the first pull of marketing have fewer total deads and total losses (includes stressed and injured pigs). Additionally, pigs loaded on the new loading system experience fewer prods, slips, falls, vocalizations and pile ups regardless of pull at marketing.

Consistent with the researchers' goal of improving the loading process, this investigation provides data to support possible changes in facility design that may ultimately lead to the improvement of performance at marketing. However, improving well-being at any stage of the marketing process is certainly advantageous to reducing the losses experienced during transportation and at the packing plant.

"With the volatility in today's marketplace, the innovation of new management tools is certainly welcomed with open arms," says new Cargill Animal Nutrition employee, Nick Berry.

He feels that several components of the recently researched loading system could add value for hog producers.

"As an industry we need to be proactive in taking a 'whole systems' approach to solving problems, which may include components of facility design and management," he says.

Nick Berry, PhD, currently works with the Pork Enterprise Group for Cargill Animal Nutrition. A recent graduate of Iowa State University, he now resides in Coralville, Iowa.

December 2008


This article is published courtesy Farms.com

[mikey]

The importance of feed reduction prior to farrowing


Overfeeding prior to farrowing is one of the most common reasons for reduced lactation feed intake and a range of other problems, PPT director Bernard Peet told delegates at the Saskatchewan Pork Industry Symposium, held in Saskatoon on November 14-15.

“As the sow approaches farrowing, the rate of passage of feed through the gut slows down causing the concentration of E. Coli in the hind gut to increase,” he explained. “This is exacerbated by feeding too much.” Toxins produced by the E. Coli get into the bloodstream and affect the uterine muscles resulting in a slower farrowing and more stillbirths. E. Coli may also colonize the udder, leading to mastitis.

Bernard pointed out that overfeeding causes too much milk to be produced prior to farrowing causing the udder to shut down milk production. Then, when piglets are born, there is inadequate milk available, leading to starvation and loss of body condition. “The sow’s milk production eventually recovers but piglets are small for their age and unable to digest the volume of milk consumed, leading to scouring at 7-10 days of age,” he said. “Sows that are fed too much prior to farrowing will eat less in lactation and are much more likely to ‘stall’ out” at 7-10 days. Therefore, feed intake should be reduced to 2.0kg/day for sows and 1.8kg/day for gilts for 4-5 days prior to the expected farrowing date.”

[mikey]

Wednesday, January 28, 2009Print This Page
Heavier Litters for Sows on High-Fibre Diet
FRANCE - Piglets born from sows fed the high-fibre diet during pregnancy grew faster than those from sows fed a standard control diet, without compromising sow body weight or backfat.



This study was conducted by H. Quesnel and colleagues at INRA at Rennes in France and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada at Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada, The aim was to investigate the effects of feeding sows a bulky diet during gestation on their physiological and metabolic adaptations during the peri-partum period, and to determine how these effects may relate to sow and piglet performance.

From day 26 of gestation until farrowing, gilts were fed diets that contained 2.8 or 11.0 per cent crude fibre (control and high-fibre diets, respectively; n=9 per group). Daily feed allowance provided the same amount of digestible energy (DE) daily (33 MJ DE per day). Throughout lactation, sows were allowed to consume a standard lactating sow diet ad libitum.

Litters were standardized to 12 piglets beyond 48 hours after birth.

On day 105 of gestation, a jugular catheter was surgically implanted. Pre-prandial blood samples were collected from day 109 of gestation to the day after farrowing and on days 4, 18 and 26 of lactation.

Meal tests and glucose tolerance tests were performed on day 109 of gestation and days 4 and 18 of lactation.

During gestation, body weight and backfat gain did not differ between treatment groups.

During lactation, sows fed the high-fibre diet ate an average of 0.94 kg per day more than control sows (P<0.02).

Piglets born from sows fed the high-fibre diet grew faster than piglets from control sows (P=0.03).

Body weight and backfat losses did not differ between the two treatment groups.

Sows fed the high-fiber diet during gestation had lesser concentrations of leptin before farrowing than control sows (P<0.01). Leptin concentrations were negatively correlated with feed intake during lactation (P<0.05).

The pre-partal increase in prolactin concentrations tended to be greater in sows fed the high-fibre diet than in control sows (P<0.1).

Pre-prandial concentrations of glucose, NEFA, lactate and IGF-I fluctuated over time without significant treatment effect. Glucose half-life was shorter in late gestation than during both stages of lactation but did not differ between sows in the two groups. In late gestation, the postprandial increases in glucose and insulin were delayed, and smaller, after a high-fibre meal than after a control meal.

During lactation, glucose and insulin profiles after a standard meal did not differ between sows from treatment groups.

In conclusion, the greater appetite of lactating sows fed a high-fibre diet during gestation does not seem related to changes in glucose and insulin metabolism and may be partly due to decreased secretion of leptin.

The greater feed consumption was accompanied by a faster growth rate of piglets without sparing effect on maternal body reserves.

Reference
Quesnel H., M.-C. Meunier-Salaün, A. Hamard, R. Guillemet, M. Etienne, C. Farmer, J.-Y. Dourmad and M.-C. Père. 2009. Dietary fiber for pregnant sows: Influence on sow physiology and performance during lactation. J. Anim Sci. 87:532-543. doi:10.2527/jas.2008-1231

[mikey]

Applied Nutrition for Optimal Gut Health and Pig Performance
Dr Chad Hagen (Hagen Swine Consulting) offers suggestions how to improve feed conversion and make the difference between profitability and loss as margins in pork production become ever narrower. The paper was presented at Alpharma's Swine Enteric Health Symposium 2008.

 

Introduction
The US feed commodity market has experienced a rollercoaster ride in price fluctuations the past 18 months. Corn price has gone from an average of about $3.30 per bushel in 2007 to more than $6.50 in the summer of 2008 to current levels of about $4.00per bushel. During that same period, the price of 46.5 per cent soybean meal has gone from about $220 per ton to as much as $400 per ton, and is now trading around $270 per ton. Similarly, feed cost for a pig from 50 to 260 lb body weight and a 2.80 feed conversion has swung from about $44 per pig to a high of around $72 per pig, back down to a current expense of about $60 per pig.

Whereas average daily gain (ADG) used to be the driver of profitability when commodity prices were significantly lower, feed efficiency (F/G) is king today. Using today’s commodity input prices, every 0.10 improvement in feed efficiency returns from $0.20 to $0.25 per pig. Any and all management and nutritional practices that improve F/G must be carefully considered and thoughtfully implemented.

Pig Body Composition Changes as a Pig Matures
Reviewing a graph plotting the change in ADG, average daily feed intake (ADFI), and F/G over the growing-finishing period of a pig’s life is helpful in understanding the relationship between the three parameters.

Figure 1 shows that ADG increases during a pig’s life until the period from about 160 to 200 lb body weight, after which ADG declines. Feed intake continues to increase throughout the pig’s life. As a direct consequence, F/G continues to worsen throughout, and deteriorates rapidly as the pig approaches market weight.

Another driver of the poor F/G that pigs experience in the latter stages of their growth curve is the change that occurs in the components of the ADG. Early in the nursery and grower, muscle is the predominant component of the ADG. The major component of muscle is water (around 84 per cent), resulting in a fairly efficient feed conversion in the early growth phase. However, during the later stages of the growth curve as pigs approach market weight, fat is the major component of the ADG. Conversion of feed nutrients to fat gain is relatively inefficient.



Figure 1. Relationship between ADG, ADFI and F/G as pigs mature
Select the Correct Genetic Lines
There are major differences within and between genetic lines in their ability to efficiently convert feed to pork. Historically, producers have looked to the terminal sire to carry the genetic load for growth rate, carcass characteristics and feed efficiency.

As feed input costs have risen dramatically, producers should be motivated to attempt to improve feed conversion through their maternal lines as well. On-farm evaluation has revealed differences of more than 0.20 in F/G between different maternal F1 lines. This equates to more than $3.00 per market hog produced.

Selecting genetic lines that excel in F/G is important but it is not enough. Estimated breeding value (EBV) management is another important step in maximizing return over genetics. Ten points EBV can be worth over $3.00 per market hog produced. As one ejaculate can produce over 300 pigs, it is critical that boar culling decisions are made on the basis of EBV, and not how difficult a boar is to collect! Production systems with their own internal boar stud need to have a “Production Decision Maker” – not the stud manager – managing the EBVs. Production systems that use purchased semen must hold the semen provider accountable for EBV management.

Follow The Feed Budget
Many feed companies and consultants will supply feed budgets each time a new batch of pigs is delivered. Feed budgets are designed to match the dietary nutrients being supplied in the feed with the pig’s metabolic requirement for growth during a specific period of time (usually 2-3 weeks per diet).

Matching the supply of nutrients with growth requirements minimizes overfeeding expensive diets, and maximizes pig growth potential by reducing the time pigs are underfed nutrients as they progress through the different phases.

Feed budgets are driven by the number of pigs in the barn and must be adjusted for mortality throughout the feeding period. When mortality is significant, as in the case of a circovirus or PRRSV outbreak, failure to adjust the budget for mortality results in the surviving pigs being “off-sequence” on all their diets. If not adjusted, the pigs may never get to the last (and cheapest) diet. Using today’s commodity prices and a six-phase feed budget with a 2.80 F/G, overfeeding the first five diets by 10 per cent and adjusting the last diet will cost an extra $0.61/pig. Overfeeding the first five diets by just 5 per cent and adjusting the last diet will cost an extra $0.30/pig.

Adjust Feeders Daily
Daily feeder adjustment is a necessary and profitable requirement in pork production. Daily adjustment is necessary as feed flow changes daily based on the micron size of the feed, the moisture of the feed and the humidity in the building.

“If you can see feed on the floor in front of the feeder, it represents at least 10 per cent feed wastage.” Everyone has probably heard this expression in the past, but what does it mean in terms of opportunity dollars lost in today’s commodity market? Assume a system achieving a 2.80 F/G from 50 to 260 lb body weight, but with visible amounts of feed on the floor in front of the majority of the feeders. Eliminating all feed wastage by careful daily feeder adjustment would be equivalent to improving the system’s F/G from its current 2.80 to 2.52! Using today’s commodity prices, an extra $6.10/pig could be added to the bottom line.

Totally eliminating all feed waste may be extremely optimistic. Cutting feed wastage in half in this system would be equivalent to improving F/G from its current 2.80 to 2.66 and adding an extra $3.05per pig to the bottom line. No other management practice has so much bottom line profit potential.

Monitor Corn Micron Size
Whether producers are purchasing complete feed or have their own feed production facilities, corn micron size should be measured regularly. Particle size of corn will increase over time as hammer-mill hammers and screens wear and roller mill adjustment drifts. Smaller particles increase the total surface area of the feed allowing maximum exposure and success of digestive enzymes. Nutrient absorption is maximized, and F/G is minimized as a result.

A target goal for corn micron size in grow-finish swine diets should be between 300 to 400 microns. It may be difficult to consistently get below 600 microns with a roller mill. As micron size is reduced, feed flowability may be reduced and feed bin bridging may increase. The best approach is to work down gradually from the current micron size in increments of 50 microns, making sure that feed flow problems and ulcer rates are not increasing. Installing AP Sure-Flocones (Automated Production Systems) in every bin is one alternative to the banging on bins that will most surely occur as micron size is reduced.

On average, each 100 micron reduction in particle size results in an improvement in feed conversion of approximately 0.05. Using today’s commodity prices, opportunity costs are about $1.00/pig for every 100 micron size increase over 400 microns. That equates to $3.00/pig lost potential by feeding a diet composed of 700 micron corn.

Is There Value In Feeding Pelleted Diets?
There are several documented advantages to feeding pelleted diets. These include a reduction in feed waste, possible destruction of pathogenic organisms within the feedstuffs, modification of the starch, protein, and fibre of the feedstuffs, and improved palatability.

Dated research from Kansas State University and Iowa State University shows a combined average improvement in ADG of four per cent and in F/G of 6.75 per cent during the grow-finish period. However, another KSU study showed that the benefits of pelleting to F/G were diminished as the amount of fines in the final product increased, and were lost as the amount of fines approached 20 per cent.

Results from several commercial trials comparing performance of pigs fed pellets versus pigs fed mash diets do not support the large feed conversion improvements observed in the KSU and ISU studies. In these commercial trials, improvements due to pelleting were approximately 1.5 per cent for ADG and just three per cent for F/G. The modest performance improvements within the commercial trials were likely due to the marginal pellet quality. Marginal pellet quality is a reality when feed is pelleted in large commercial mills.

Another pitfall with pelleted feed is increased mortality due to ulcers. It is common in commercial systems to observe increases in finishing mortality rate of two per cent or more due to feeding pellets. The magnitude of this elevated mortality is affected by the genotype and the overall health and biosecurity of the system. Using current feed and production costs, F/G must improve a minimum of three per cent and mortality must not increase more than one per cent for pelleting to be a cost-effective option.

Use Alternative Ingredients
Although regional niche markets exist for alternative ingredients like field peas, canola or barley, the reality is that “a rising tide will raise all ships.” All commodity prices respond and follow the price of corn and soybean meal. Producers must realize that it is very difficult for a mill to constantly swap-out ingredients. Ingredient bin space is usually limited and often the market has changed by the time the ingredient swap is completed.

In addition, the assumption is that pig performance does not change when incorporating “opportunity” ingredients. This may not be true if the alternative ingredient quality is sub-par, or if the alternative ingredient has been assigned incorrect nutrient values.

With that said, dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) is extremely abundant and can provide substantial feed cost savings. As previously stated, one of the biggest challenges in extracting the maximum return from DDGS is assigning the proper nutrient values to DDGS, which will vary by source. It is common to see relative value differences in excess of $40.00 per ton DDGS between plants even though product pricing from plant to plant is similar. Producers must understand which plants produce the highest value DDGS and then assign the proper nutrient loadings (metabolisable energy, net energy, digestible amino acids and digestible phosphorus) to the product they are using.

It is also important to understand changes in relative value within a given plant over time. For instance, many plants have begun to centrifuge the oil off the solubles, which decreases the relative energy value of the product.

Another challenge to address with DDGS is mycotoxins. The process of producing DDGS results in concentrating the mycotoxins by a factor of three. Studies have shown that a high percentage of DDGS does contain mycotoxins. Utilization of an effective toxin binder is a critical insurance policy in sow diets containing DDGS.

Levels of DDGS of up to 10 per cent in lactation, 30 per cent in gestation and 30 per cent in finishing diets can be incorporated successfully. Feed cost savings of from $4.00 to $5.00 per head can be achieved when DDGS is utilized properly and aggressively.

Maximize Use of Phytase
Much of the natural phosphorus in feed grains is unavailable to pigs because the phosphorus is in the form of phytic acid, which pigs cannot digest.

Phytase is an enzyme that when incorporated into the feed can break the bonds between the phosphorus molecule and the phytic acid allowing pigs to absorb the phosphorus. Phytase has been available for several years, but has increased in value as dicalcium and monocalcium phosphate prices have skyrocketed.

Most producers are using phytase, but many are not using it properly or aggressively enough. Incorporating phytase in a diet containing DDGS may make it possible to remove all supplemental phosphorus from finishing pig diets, and most supplemental phosphorus from sow diets.

Selecting the phytase source that gives the most economical phosphorus release and utilizing the correct nutrient loading values are the keys to maximizing phytase value. Utilizing phytase correctly can reduce feed costs by as much as $1.00 per head in today’s market.

Incorporate Growth Promotants
During this period of record high commodity prices, some pork producers have pulled growth promotants out of feed to reduce cash outlay. That is a mistake. Antibiotic growth promotants that improve feed conversion have never had more value. Antibiotic growth promotants will usually improve feed conversion by two to five per cent during the grow-finish phase.

In more than 80 trials with more than 8,000 pigs, BMD® (Alpharma Animal Health, Bridgewater, NJ) has been shown to improve ADG by four per cent and improve F/G by more than three per cent. Using today’s commodity prices, a three per cent improvement in F/G would deliver an extra $1.44 per pig to the bottom line above the input cost of the BMD.

Withdraw Feed Prior to Slaughter
After working hard to minimize F/G during the finishing period, why send a pig to market with six pounds of expensive feed in its stomach that will end up on the slaughter floor?

Withdrawing feed prior to slaughter reduces feed cost and transport deads, and improves pork quality. On close-out loads it is simple to manage: just shut off the feed so that pigs have 12 to 18 hours without feed prior to slaughter.

Transport time must be considered. Top-off loads are not as simple. Sort barns and barn designs that allow a gate to be placed in front of the feeder while still allowing access to water serve the purpose. Some producers with conventional barns are shutting off feed on the whole barn prior to taking top loads and getting by without problems. Before implementing this practice on a large scale, producers should try the practice on a few barns and make sure that ulcers and haemorrhagic bowel problems do not spontaneously occur.

Summary
Efficient conversion of feed to pork is an indirect indicator of gut health. Understanding how pig growth and feed intake change as the pig matures and incorporating the suggestions in this manuscript may improve F/G and make the difference between profitability and loss as margins in pork production become increasingly narrower.

January 2009

[mikey]

Efficient Feed Usage
Number 18 in the Action for Productivity series from BPEX offers practical advice on how to get the best from the feed - from design of the feeding system to hygiene tips.



Feed costs have risen to represent nearly 80% of the variable costs of producing a pig and over 50 per cent of total costs. Consequently any fluctuation in feed prices has a greater impact on production costs and profitability than any other single factor. While it may be possible to decrease the cost of production (COP) by reducing input prices, e.g. switching to a cheaper ration or purchasing in larger quantities, it can also be achieved through simple practical actions to minimise feed wastage and to improve the efficiency of utilisation.



Cost of producing a pig in 2007





Management Guidelines
Around 10 per cent of feed may be 'wasted' on a typical farrow to finish unit. Improve or start recording growth and feed conversion ratio (FCR) in all stages of production to allow better decision making. Consider each of the following areas to reduce wastage and improve efficiency on a regular basis, e.g. quarterly, as a team.



Circular feeder


Drinker sited too close to feeder and in the corner of the pen


25 per cent coverage of the feeder trough


Adjusting feeder flow rateFeeding space
Enough space must be provided for every pig within the group to feed (Table 1)
Feeder space requirement per pig depends on pig size and feeding regime, e.g. ad lib or restrict fed; liquid, pellet or meal; and feeder design, including header barrier provision (Table 1)
More space is required per pig when restrict feeding compared with ad lib as all pigs need to be able to feed at the same time
More space is also required per pig where hoppers have no, or only partial head barriers between spaces
Eating time is slower for meal than pellets and hence where pigs are meal fed, more space is required; pellets require more space than ad lib liquid feeding
With circular feeders the number of pigs per pig space can generally be increased because of the greater space allowance at the shoulder
Watch the pigs feeding, looking out for signs of crowding around the feeders, if this occurs more space may be required
Provide extra portable hoppers when the numbers of pigs in the pen is higher than usual
Evidence of ear biting or fresh shoulder scars may be the result of fighting for space around the feeder (or drinking point) indicating insufficient feeding space and/or that hopper placement/access is inadequate
Ensure that the hopper type is appropriate for the size of pig, e.g. do not use grower hoppers for finishers.
Feeder placement
Placement is as critical as feeder space in ensuring that all pigs within a group have access to feed
Hoppers placed too close to a pen corner can be easily 'blocked' by a dominant pig
Feeders should be located far enough from drinkers to ensure that dominant pigs must move away to drink, providing opportunities for less dominant pigs to access feeders, but not so far as to cause major disturbance eg place within 1–2 metres
To reduce the risk of fouling in the feeders they should not be sited in the dunging area
Feeders should be situated so that feed is protected from rain, birds and vermin
Ensure that feeders can be easily inspected.
Table 1. Feeder space for pigs at different weights
(Source: Code of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock: Pigs (Defra) and Garth Pig Stockmanship Standards)
Weight of pig  Trough/hopper length/pig space (kg) (mm)
  Restrict fed  Ad lib fed
5 100 75
10 130 33
15 150 38
35 200 50
60 240 60
90 280 70
120 300 75

Feeder flow rates
Feeders should be checked daily to ensure that they are working correctly and that feed is available
Dry feed flow rates should be set to maintain intake but reduce wastage, providing about 25 per cent coverage of the feeder trough, depending on the hopper
Flow rates may need to be frequently adjusted as the pigs grow
Ensure even distribution along the length of the feeder trough.


Bagged feed should be stored in suitable dry conditions


Feed wastage is expensiveFeed quality
The presence of dust,'fines' or lumps of clogged feed will affect flow rates and reduce feed intake
Regular checks should be made to see if the hopper or auger mechanism is damaging/crushing the feed or affecting the pellet size, increasing wastage.
Storage
Clean and inspect feed bins regularly for signs of damage and leakage
Check that all bins are correctly and easily identifiable to ensure correct deliveries
Bagged feed should be stored in suitable conditions, in a dry area and at a suitable temperature, e.g. do not store creep feed in a nursery or farrowing house as the warm temperatures will turn the feed rancid
Check feed for signs of mould and mites; if found discard the affected feed, identify the source eg clogged feed in the hopper or poor storage, and take remedial actions immediately.
Spillage
Wastage from feed falling between the slats or being spilt onto the floor is expensive, consider placing feeders on boards to prevent feed falling through slats and thus reducing wastage
Quickly identify the cause of any spillage and rectify the problem eg the hopper design may be incorrect for the size of pig; overstocking may be causing uneven feeding; feeder flow rates may require adjustment; or the feed bins, hoppers or feed system may require repair.
Diet specification
Regularly review feed strategies with your nutritionist or feed supplier, ensuring that the diets, timing of diet changes and quantities of each diet actually being fed correctly match pig flow, age of pig and growth rates
Cheapest is not always the best; the value of performance must be taken into consideration along with the feed programme.
Feed intake
If possible devise a way to measure the feed intake of either a whole building or individual pens
Regularly checking feed intake will help to optimise diet formulations and also detect fluctuations, helping to identify likely causes of reductions or increases in intake
Where restrict feeding, routinely check that actual drop quantities are as expected
Check dry matter content for wet feed systems.
Feed orders
Review your storage capacity
When placing feed orders discuss optimal load sizes with your feed supplier
It is critical to avoid running out of feed at any stage as this will adversely affect pig health and consequent performance.
Water
Maintaining water intake is critical since this drives feed intake and therefore affects growth rate and FCR
There must be sufficient functioning drinkers, at the correct height for the stage of pig, correctly positioned and with adequate flow rates
See Action for Productivity 16: Water supply for more information on this topic.


Maintain an active vermin control programme


Clean hoppers will encourage intake


Ensure that cleaning is effectiveVermin and birds
Contamination of feed by rats, mice and birds not only poses a health risk to the pigs, but can result in significant feed losses
100 adult rats can eat up to four tonnes of feed per year
Maintain an active vermin control programme, bird proof buildings where possible, keep lids on hoppers and feed barrows and clean up any spillages promptly.
Temperatures
Monitor the daily min/max temperatures within buildings, as well as observing the pigs' behaviour
For recommended temperatures, see the Defra Code of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock - Pigs
High temperatures can reduce appetite and therefore growth rates, while cold temperatures cause pigs to use energy to maintain body temperature rather than for growth
Note that temperature requirements are affected by a number of variables, for example group size, floor type, bedding, health status etc.
Hygiene
Check that feeders are clean and that there is no caked feed
Any fouling must be cleaned out daily to reduce wastage and encourage intake
Follow an all-in all-out policy wherever possible, cleaning and disinfecting buildings and pens between batches
Review your cleaning policy with your vet, ensuring that the cleaning is effective, using appropriate disinfectants at the correct dilution rates
See Action for Productivity 10: Cleaning and Disinfection for more information.
Movement and mixing
Reducing the number of moves, minimising mixing, keeping variation to a minimum and enforcing actual all-in all-out policies, will all help to improve health, minimise stress and increase intake, growth rates and efficiency
Review your actual current pig flow with this in mind and the timing of all feed changes
Ensure that all relevant information, such as weaning date, is transferred with the pigs as they are moved through the system to enable days to sale to be monitored
Review all records regularly with your staff, vet and nutritionist, continually striving to improve performance.
January 2009

BPEX