Organic Poultry Production in the USA

[mikey]

Organic Poultry Production in the United States - Living Conditions and Housing
In organic poultry production systems, birds are raised without cages in housing that allows outdoor access, are fed organic feed and managed with proactive practices and natural treatments. Organic Poultry Production in the United States was published by ATTRA in 2008. It discusses organic husbandry including living conditions, health, genetics and origin, feed and processing as specified under the livestock requirements of the US Department of Agriculture National Organic Program (NOP). This article covers living conditions and housing, including a comparison of NOP standards with those in other countries.



Introduction to Organic Production
Organic refers to the way livestock and agricultural products are raised and processed, avoiding agrochemicals such as synthetic pesticides and fertilizers.

Although non-chemical farming is a good working definition, avoiding synthetic inputs is just one feature. Organic production focuses on animal health and welfare, good environmental practices and product quality. In contrast, conventional production focuses on reducing costs and maximizing production through weight gain, feed efficiency and more (Sundrum, 2006).

Since USDA established the National Organic Program in 2002, the organic food market has grown by almost 20 per cent annually. The organic meat industry is a relatively young one although organic production has been practised for decades in the United States. This publication is written for US producers who are complying with the NOP.

The NOP regulations are available by clicking here. The regulations are broken down into sub-parts: sub-part C deals with crops, livestock and handling. Sections 205.236 through 205.239 deal specifically with livestock, including poultry. Section 205.600 is the National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances and lists synthetic substances that can be used in organic production and a few natural substances that may not.

Basic Requirements for Organic Poultry
The basic requirements include:

Appropriate housing that permits natural behavior, including outdoor access
Certified organic feed, including pasture
No antibiotics, drugs or synthetic parasiticides
Organic processing of meat and eggs
Record-keeping system to allow tracking of poultry and products (audit trail)
Organic system plan including description of practices to prevent contamination, monitoring practices and list of inputs
Production that does not contribute to contamination of soil or water
No genetically modified organisms, ionizing radiation or sewage sludge.
Living Conditions and Housing
Housing should protect birds from the elements, maintain a comfortable temperature, provide ventilation and clean bedding and allow birds to exercise and conduct natural behaviours. Cages are not permitted. In addition, the birds must have access to the outdoors for exercise areas, fresh air and sunlight and must be able to scratch and dustbath. Combining free-ranging poultry with ruminant production can help manage the forage for the poultry and reduce mowing for the producer. Shelters such as pastured poultry pens or field pens are questionable because they may not provide adequate housing or permit birds to express natural behaviour due to confinement. The NOP does not specify if ponds are required for waterfowl; check with your certifier.

The NOP does not specify indoor or outdoor stocking densities but many organic certifiers look for a lower stocking rate than the industry average of 0.7 square feet (0.07 square metres) per bird. Most look for at least 1.5 square feet (0.14 square metres) per bird. There is no limit on the number of birds that may be raised in one house; nor is there a requirement for the amount of bird exits or popholes that should be provided. The NOP also does not specify the amount of outdoor access a bird should have. Organic programmess in other countries have details on these issues to limit the size and density of flocks.

Livestock and poultry may be temporarily confined for inclement weather, the stage of production, conditions under which the health, safety or well-being of the animal could be jeopardized or if the animals being outside could pose a risk to soil or water quality. Chicks, poults and other young birds are normally confined during brooding when they need to be heated although outdoor access can be provided at a young age. Birds can be confined during cold weather although some breeds are hardy and venture outdoors in cold weather.

Organic pullets are often not provided outdoor access until they are ready to lay, at about 20 weeks. Many producers have biosecurity concerns with outdoor access and use the argument that vaccines need sufficient time to create immunity; however, long periods are not required. Immunity generally develops a week or so after the first boost. The last round of vaccines, usually at 16 to 18 weeks, is intended to maintain lasting titres to protect the flock during lay. Outdoor access is not likely to interfere, although many producers are concerned about biosecurity and their vets may order no outdoor access. In addition, the light period is carefully managed for pullets to delay egg production until sufficient maturity exists for proper egg size.

All-slat flooring is generally not permitted. Some flooring should be solid with litter so birds can scratch. If birds are likely to eat their litter, it should be organic. Most poultry litter is not. Although litter treatments are common in conventional production to lower pH and reduce microbial growth and ammonia production, in organic production litter amendments are not as common. Any amendment must be natural. For example, synthetic materials, such as the commercially available Poultry Litter Treatment (sodium bisulphite), are not permitted. Some small producers use hydrated lime to lower moisture in litter. Although hydrated lime is permitted in organic livestock production, hydrated lime is only permitted for external pest control. Adequate nestboxes and perches are needed for laying birds.

Producers must not allow lumber treated with arsenate or other prohibited substances for new installations or replacement to be in contact with animals. Existing treated lumber is handled differently by certifying agencies; some require removal or a barrier, while others permit it if it does not impact livestock. See ATTRA's Organic Alternatives to Treated Lumber for information on alternative lumber options.



Electronet fence to protect birds from predators.
Photo by Anne Fanatico, NCATPoultry should be protected from predators, both indoors and outdoors. Electric fences can exclude ground predators and keep poultry where desired.

For more information on fencing and managing outdoor areas for poultry, see ATTRA's Alternative Poultry Production Systems and Outdoor Access. Artificial lighting is permitted but there are limits on its use. Although the NOP has no specific requirements on lighting, many certifiers look for an eight-hour dark period because a dark period is needed to maintain the immune system and for good bird welfare. When managing layers and breeders, the lighting period should not be longer than 16 hours or the longest day of the year.

Many certifiers require a relatively high level of light in the house to encourage bird activity and may require windows in order to provide direct sunlight. In contrast, the conventional industry usually keeps lights low for broilers to reduce activity. The light level is so low that it is difficult to read a newspaper. Some welfare assurance programmes require at least two footcandles of light intensity (Humane Farm Animal Care, 2008).

For rodent, fly and other pest control, a multi-level approach is used and begins with prevention and sanitation including habitat reduction and physical exclusion from facilities and feed. Secondly, control can include mechanical and physical methods such as tarps, electric fences, adhesive and fans; and thirdly, it can include natural or allowed synthetic rodenticides such as cholecalciferol and sulphur dioxide as an underground smoke bomb. ATTRA can provide additional information on natural rodent control.

In terms of waste, the producer must manage waste in a way that does not contribute to environmental contamination and optimizes recycling of nutrients. Although poultry litter and manure have nutrients that are very useful for crop and pasture production, producers must be careful not to apply manure to land that is already too high in nitrogen or phosphorus.

Also, because raw manure cannot come into contact with organic crops ready for harvest and human consumption, poultry may not be grazed with crops within 90 days of harvest or 120 days if a harvestable crop part contacts soil. However, manure or other waste that is composted according to NOP specifications does not have these harvest restrictions. The NOP has additional guidelines for other heat-processed animal manure products online by clicking here.

Table 1. Comparison of highlights of poultry requirements regarding living conditions and housing of selected organic programmes a 
  USDA NOP European Union Soil Association (UK) Canada National Bio-Gro (New Zealand) IFOAM 2002
Living conditions No cages
Flooring   At least 1/3 of house must be solid with litter (all slats not permitted) At least ½ of house must be solid with litter (no more than ½ slats permitted)       
Equipment     Minimum feeder space(linear): 2.5 cm; minimum drinkers: 10 birds per nipple       
Perches   18 cm/layer 18 cm/layer       
Nests   8 layers/nest 6 layers/nest       
Maximum indoor density   6 layer/m2; 10 meat poultry/m2 (21 kg/m2 max) b 6 layer/m2; 10 meat poultry/m2 (21 kg/m2 max); 2 turkey/m2 b 6 layers/m2; 10 meat chickens/m2; 2 turkeys/m2 5 layers/m2 on litter; 10 layers/m2 on slats; 13 layers/m2 on multilevels, perches   
Outdoor area Outdoor access required At least 1/3 of birds; lives; mainly covered by vegetation; shelter required on pasture; access to pond for waterfowl At least 2/3 of meat birds' lives and of all laying lives; well-covered with vegetation; shelter required on pasture; access to pond for waterfowl; outdoor drinkers required At least 1/3 of birds' lives access to pasture required; covered by vegetation Birds must forage as soon as possible (ideally by first week); outside area must provide access to forages; shelter required on pasture Access to pasture required; 'landless animal production' is prohibited
Popholes or 'bird doorways'   4 m of pophole per 100 m2 house 4 m of pophole per 100 m2 house       
Pasture rotation     Rest pasture at least 9 months between each batch of layers; rest pasture for 2 months per year plus 1 year in every 3 years for meat birds Pasture left empty periodically to allow vegetation to re-grow If run area is limited, pasture must be rotated   
Maximum outdoor density   4 m2 per chicken c; 4 m2 per layer; 10 m2 per turkey; 4-5 m2 per duck 1,000 hens/ha; 2,500 meat chickens c/ha; 800 turkeys/ha 4 layers/m2; 4 meat chckens/m2; 7.2 m2/turkey (over 10 wk)d 833 layers/ha; 1,500 meat chickens/ha   
Maximum flock/farm size   4,800 meat chickens; 3,000 layers; 2,500 turkeys; maximum total house area (entire farm) is 1,600m2 500 layers or meat birds per house or 250 turkeys/house; if welfare and environment are well maintained, then 2,000 layers or 1,000 meat chickens or turkeys; maximum total house area (entire farm) is 1,600m2       
Lighting     Artificial lighting cannot extend daylength more than 16 hours   No fluorescent lighting Natural daylight is needed
a Note that 1 m2 = 10.8 ft2; 4 m2 = 43.2 ft2
b If mobile housing is used in which the popholes remain open at night, the indoor stocking density can be increased: 16 birds/m2 (maximum of 30 kg live weight). This type of housing must not be larger than 150m2.
c If mobile housing is used, only 2.5 m2 per meat bird is required
d Additional standards for mobile units moved daily
References
Humane Farm Animal Care. 2008. Broilers. Animal Care Standards. Herndon, Virginia.
Sundrum, A. 2006. Protein supply in organic poultry and pig production. Pp. 195-199. Proceedings of the 1st IFOAM International Conference on Animals in Organic Production, St. Paul, MN, Aug. 23-25, 2006.

[mikey]

Organic Poultry Production in the US: Health Issues
Organic Poultry Production in the United States was published by ATTRA in 2008. It discusses organic husbandry including living conditions, health, genetics and origin, feed and processing as specified under the livestock requirements of the US Department of Agriculture National Organic Program (NOP). This article covers issues regarding health and hygiene, including a comparison of NOP standards with those in other countries.



General Aspects of Health
Proactive health management is used in organic production. A working relationship with an avian veterinarian is an integral part of health management and an animal health plan is often part of the Organic System Plan.

Provide adequate housing and space, ventilation and good nutrition to reduce stress and maintain the immune system. Prevent the introduction of disease with the use of vaccines and biosecurity practices. Use natural treatments if needed.

Vaccines are allowed in organic production to prevent disease. Interestingly, vaccines may be genetically engineered, a practice that is otherwise not permitted in organic production. This information appears in section 205.104(e) of the NOP Final Rule. Poultry vaccines are commonly used in the United States to prevent Marek's disease, Newcastle, infectious bronchitis and coccidiosis.

Probiotics are often used in organic poultry production, particularly to replace antibiotic growth promoters, which are not permitted. Probiotics are beneficial microbes, fed to birds to establish beneficial gut microflora, reducing colonisation by pathogenic organisms such as Salmonella and E. coli. This mechanism is called competitive exclusion because beneficial microorganisms are competing with pathogenic ones for nutrients and attachment areas in the gut. Other natural products include prebiotics, which are non-digestible food ingredients that benefit the host by selectively stimulating the growth of bacterial species present in the gut. An example is lactose, which is used by beneficial lactic acid bacteria in the gut but cannot be digested by chickens. Other prebiotics include fructo-oligosaccharides, inulin and lactulose, which alter the microbial balance in favor of beneficial bacteria (Novak and Troche, 2006). Manno-oligasaccharides appear to have a different mechanism that prevents pathogenic bacteria from adhering to the gut lining.

The NOP emphasises that drugs, growth promotants and synthetic parasiticides are not permitted, but natural materials can be used. However, no materials in violation of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act should be used. Examples of natural treatments include enzymes, antioxidants, pyrethrum for controlling mites and botanicals such as garlic and oregano.

Antibiotics and other medical treatment must not be withheld if needed, and these birds should be diverted to nonorganic markets. Mortality may be higher in large-scale organic production than conventional production because medications are not permitted. Necrotic enteritis is a common health problem in large organic broiler flocks. In fact, broiler mortality may be 5 to 10 per cent in organic production. Organic layer flocks may have 3- to 5-per cent mortality rate.

Good biosecurity and sanitation practices should be followed on the farm, including limiting visitor access to the bird area. Sunlight and dry conditions help reduce pathogens in outdoor areas and foot baths with approved disinfectants, such as iodine, can be used at the entrance to houses, as well as disposable booties or dedicated footwear. The use of 'all-in, all-out' management (completely harvesting a flock before starting a new one) results in the reduction of pathogens, many of which die during the downtime. Mixing ages in a flock is a risk because older birds may be carriers of disease for younger birds. Likewise, mixing species can result in some species carrying diseases to other species. See the sections below on biosecurity and sanitation.

External parasites such as mites should be managed by allowing birds to dust-bathe. Many producers also add diatomaceous earth to dust baths. If mite treatment is needed, pyrethrum is a natural product that is permitted in organic production. For roost mites that do not actually live on birds themselves, the roosts, cracks and crevices in the house should also be treated. Natural oils, such as linseed oil, are often used on roosts.

Incidence of internal parasites – such as roundworms, caecal worms and capillary worms – can be a problem in organic poultry production and has been the focus of scientific studies (Permin et al., 1999 and Thamsborg et al., 1999). Rotating access to different outdoor areas is key in reducing incidence of internal parasites. Anticoccidial medications are not permitted for control of the protozoan parasite coccidiosis; therefore many producers focus on management or the use of a vaccine. See ATTRA's Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry Production: Coccidiosis for more information.
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"Preventing disease starts with clean birds. If you purchase birds or eggs, make sure they are from breeding fl ocks approved by the USDA National Poultry Improvement Program, which certifies flocks are free of certain diseases." 

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Moulting is a natural process that birds undergo annually to renew their feathers. Molting can help replenish the reproductive systems and bones of layers. Moult usually takes several weeks and egg production declines or ceases. A flock of the same age and origin will molt about the same time, although there may be some variation among individuals in the length of moult. Force-moulting is a way to induce the layers in a flock to moult at a particular time and at a faster rate. Moult can be forced by reducing the nutrient density of the diet and reducing the light period.

In conventional layer operations, layers are destroyed or processed at about 70 weeks of age or they are force-moulted and then, after laying begins again, kept until about 105 weeks of age. If producers force-moult, they should provide a moult diet and should provide a light period of at least eight hours.

The NOP does not have specific standards on forced moulting, but generally certifiers do not permit it due to stress to the bird. Organic producers usually destroy or process the flock at about 70 weeks, although small producers may let birds moult naturally.

Natural moulting is not as efficient as forced moulting, but it maintains bird welfare and extends the productive life of the layer (fewer layers are needed over time). Ideally, layers should be allowed to moult naturally and kept for at least two to three years.

Although the welfare of the bird is a cornerstone of organic poultry production, welfare assurance programmes, such as Humane Farm Animal Care (HFAC) and American Humane Association (AHA), have measurable standards and can document that birds have adequate access to feed and water, have good litter and air quality, that caretakers are trained, handling and euthanasia methods are humane and more. Birds are particularly stressed during catching, transport and processing.

Food safety in organic poultry production is an area of interest. Some studies have shown that food-borne diseases are more prevalent in organic livestock production than conventional. In a Danish study, campylobacter was found in all 22 organic broiler flocks compared to only one-third of conventional broiler flocks (Heuer et al., 2001). Organic birds are generally kept longer than conventional and have more opportunity to encounter pathogens. In contrast, Lunangtongkum et al. (2006) found that campylobacter bacteria developed resistance to fluoroquinolones, a group of antibiotics important in human health, in 46 per cent of conventionally raised chickens and 67 per cent of conventional turkeys, but only 2 per cent of the organically raised chickens and turkeys.

Sanitation
Sanitation between flocks is particularly important and a downtime of two to three weeks will help control pathogens that need a host to survive.

Cleaning is the first step because organic matter must be removed in order for a disinfectant to work. First sweep or air-blow the house from top to bottom to remove organic matter, and then spray the house with a high-pressure sprayer and detergent. Rinse and allow to dry, and then apply disinfectant.

Approved materials that are used for disinfection and sanitation of premises and equipment include chlorine materials, iodine, hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, phosphoric acid and organic acids. Hydrogen peroxide is particularly corrosive to metal and should be rinsed well. Iodine may stain surfaces. Alcohol is also a disinfectant but not very effective. Propane-fuelled heat tools are also used to disinfect.

In addition, water lines need regular care. Water lines can be flushed with organic acids, such as citric acid or vinegar, to loosen debris, and then sanitized with iodine or hydrogen peroxide between flocks. Chlorine is also used for routine sanitation of water lines when birds are in the house. Chlorine level should not be more than 4 ppm.

Biosecurity
Good biosecurity is important in any poultry operation and particularly in organic operations. Since wild birds, particularly waterfowl, can carry diseases that harm domestic poultry, it is important to exclude wild waterfowl from the free-range poultry area. Outdoor feeders should not attract wild birds. For example, a self-feeder dispenses feed to poultry on demand. See the Solway Feeders for examples of self-feed dispensers. If necessary, netting can be placed over outdoor yards.

The USDA's Biosecurity for the Birds has information on biosecurity. Although highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza is not currently in the United States, there is concern that wild waterfowl may carry various types of avian influenza to free-range flocks. See ATTRA's Avian Influenza in Free-Range and Organic Poultry Production for more information.

Physical Interventions
Physical alterations are allowed if they are essential for animal welfare and done in a manner that minimizes pain. However, physical alterations should not be done on a routine basis.

Beak trimming in particular is a controversial practice performed on layers to reduce feather pecking. Feather pecking is a concern in cage-free and organic poultry production because of large group sizes. Feather pecking is an indicator of stress in the perpetrator and the victim and can lead to cannibalism. Beak-trimming is only permitted if other methods of prevention fail. Most welfare programmes require that beak trimming be done before 10 days of age with a humane method such as a hot blade or infra-red. No more than 50 per cent of the beak should be trimmed, as measured from beak tip to nostril (Kuenzel, 2007).

Ideally, animals should be able to breed without human intervention, but artificial insemination is allowed by the NOP.

Preventing Feather Pecking
Prevention of feather pecking begins early, when rearing the pullets. In a Dutch study, researchers Monique Bestman and Jan-Paul Wagenaar (2006) found pullets that feather peck during rearing will continue to feather peck as layers. However, pullets that do not feather peck during rearing will not later. Pullets need to be raised on litter (not in cages), have perches and a low stocking density. Flocks that feather pecked were at a density of 35 chicks per square metre (3.2 chicks per square foot), while flocks that did not feather peck were at only 22 chicks per square metre (two chicks per square foot) during the first four weeks of life.

Other risk factors that led to feather pecking included the use of slat flooring during the first weeks of life (no litter), absence of perches and no grain scattered for a pecking incentive. Bestman and Wagenaar quoted the 1955 work of German scientist Dr Erich Bäumer, who said, "During the first weeks of life, a pullet learns to eat. They will peck at everything in order to find out what is edible and what not. If their environment consists mainly of flock mates, the chance is big they start pecking at their flock-mates' plumage."

Hanging roughage or providing it in baskets also helps reduce feather pecking and birds learn to peck at different levels. If pullets are reared by an organic pullet specialist, the producer should ensure these practices have been followed so that the layers producers buy are less likely to feather peck.

Table 1. Comparison of highlights of poultry requirements regarding health issues of selected organic programmes
  USDA NOP European Union Soil Association (UK) Canada National Bio-Gro (New Zealand) IFOAM 2002
Health   Downtime between flocks required Downtime between flocks required   Goal is to eliminate need for vaccines; no GMO vaccines   
Antibiotics Not permitted Antibiotics permitted as last resort; withdrawal is double   Emphasizes that vaccinations before 2 days cannot have antibiotics Not clear Antibiotics can be used as last resort if withdrawal is double
Beak trimming Permitted as last resort Permitted as last resort Not permitted; nor is wing clipping Permitted as a last resort Not permitted  Not permitted
Artificial insemination Not specified, generally permitted Permitted   Permitted Permitted Permitted
Forced moulting       Expressly prohibited     
Caponization   Permitted for traditional product Expressly prohibited       

References
Bestman, M. and J.P. Wagenaar. 2006. Feather pecking in organic rearing hens. Joint Organic Congress, Odense, Denmark, May 30-31, 2006.
Heuer, O.E., K. Pederson, J.S. Anderson and M. Madsen. 2001. Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of thermophilic Campylobacter in organic and conventional broiler flocks. Letters in Applied Microbiology 33:269-74.
Lunangtongkum, T., T.Y. Morishita, A.J. Ison, S. Huang, P.F. McDermott and Q. Zhang. 2006. Effect of conventional and organic production practices on the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter spp. in poultry. Pp. 113-120. Proceedings of the 1st IFOAM International Conference on Animals in Organic Production, St. Paul, MN, Aug. 23-25, 2006.
Novak, C. and C. Troche. 2006. Use of Bio-Mos® to Control Salmonella and Campylobacter in Organic Poultry. Accessed Dec. 2007.
Permin, A., M. Bisgaard, F. Frandsen, M. Pearman, J. Kold and P. Nansen. 1999. Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths in different poultry production systems. British Poultry Science 40(4): 439-443.
Thamsborg, S.M., A. Roepstorff and M. Larsen. 1999. Integrated and biological control of parasites in organic and conventional production systems. Veterinary Parasitology 84(3/4): 169-186.