Poultry Management:

[mikey]

Further Evaluation of Nonfeed Removal Methods for Molting Programs
P. E. Biggs, M. E. Persia, K. W. Koelkebeck, and C. M. Parsons, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois - Published by Poultry Science.


Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate several nonfeed removal methods compared with feed removal for induced molting of laying hens. An experiment was conducted using 576 Dekalb White hens (69 wk of age) randomly assigned to 1 of 8 dietary treatments. Two of these treatments consisted of feed removal for 10 d followed by ad libitum access to a 16% CP, corn-soybean meal diet or a 94% corn diet for 18 d.

The other 6 treatments provided ad libitum access for 28 d to diets containing 94% corn, 94% wheat middlings (WM), 71% WM: 23% corn, 47% WM: 47% corn, 95% corn gluten feed, and 94% distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). At 28 d, all hens were fed a laying hen diet (16% CP), and production performance was measured for 40 wk.

The 2 feed removal treatments resulted in total cessation of egg production within 6 d. Egg production of hens fed the 94% WM, 71% WM: 23% corn, corn, corn gluten feed, and 47% WM:47% corn diets all decreased to 6% or less by d 12, 16, 19, 20, and 28, respectively. Egg production of hens fed DDGS never decreased below 18%.

Body weight loss ranged from 10% (DDGS) to 26% (10-d feed removal), with the other treatments being similar at 17%. No consistent differences were observed among treatments throughout the 40-wk postmolt period for egg production, egg specific gravity, egg weight, egg yield, or feed efficiency. No differences were observed among feed removal treatments versus several nonfeed removal treatments for ovary and oviduct weights and blood heterophil:lymphocyte ratios during the molt period.

In addition, interactive social behaviors were not different throughout the molt period between hens fed the 94% WM and those deprived of feed for 10 d. Our results indicate feeding WM, corn, corn gluten feed, and WM:corn diets are effective nonfeed removal methods for molting laying hens.

The study is published in Poultry Science - Volume 83, April 2004, Number 5

Source: Poultry Science - April 2004

[mikey]

Managing Today’s Broiler Breeder Female
By G.T. Tabler and R.K. Bramwell, University of Arkansas - Managing the modern broiler breeder female so that she will produce a large number of high quality hatching eggs is a delicate combination of both art and science. This article delves deeper.

 
More on the Authors
G.T. Tabler
Applied Broiler Research Manager
R.K. Bramwell
Extension Reproductive Physiologist
Introduction
Over the past few decades, broiler breeders have undergone intensive selection for faster growth rate, increased yield and improved feed conversion.

Although these traits are measured at the broiler level, they impact the breeder hen in ways we often do not consider. The objective with broiler breeders is to have them consume an “ideal” amount of nutrients within a given time period to produce a bird whose weight, body condition and frame allow the reproductive organs to mature and function at their best. How do we combine art and science to manage the sexual maturation of today’s broiler breeder female?

Photostimulation
One of the most critical time periods in broiler breeder hen management is the time from photostimulation (lighting) to peak production (Robinson, 1995). This period is characterized by relatively fast weight gains, in addition to changes brought about by the development of a functioning, hormone-producing ovary. Lighting the breeder pullet flock is generally considered the cue to initiate puberty, although the response to lighting can be modified by the feeding program.

At photostimulation, light energy passes through the skull of the breeder pullet into the brain and “illuminates” the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus in the brain is much like the main circuit breaker in a house; it controls a variety of body processes including reproduction. The brain acts in concert with the liver, skeletal system, ovary and oviduct to make up the reproductive system in the breeder hen. After the hypothalamus receives a photostimulatory signal (long day length above a certain threshold of intensity), the hypothalamus secretes specific hormones that travel to the anterior pituitary portion of the brain (Robinson, 1999). The anterior pituitary produces hormones known as Luteinizing hormone and Follicle Stimulating hormone that travel to specific tissues in the ovary to stimulate ovarian function.

One of the first responses seen when looking at the ovary of the pullet after lighting, is that the tiny ovarian follicles begin to increase in size. These small follicles produce large quantities of estrogens. Estrogen causes most of the reproductive transformation associated with puberty.

Firstly, estrogen increases the production of yolk precursors in the liver of the bird. Visibly, the liver can be seen to enlarge and become paler as it increases in fat content for production of egg yolk lipids. Secondly, the oviduct increases in size, as it must be ready to receive ovulated follicles by the time the ovary has mature follicles ready to ovulate. Thirdly, estrogen results in changes to bone composition, so that calcium can be mobilized daily to facilitate egg shell formation. Finally, estrogen, together with male sex hormones, results in changes to plumage, comb size and sexual receptivity to males (Robinson, 1995). Traditionally, flocks receive photo stimulation when they are 20-22 weeks of age resulting in onset of egg production at approximately 24-25 weeks of age. This program tends to maximize egg numbers, but may result in eggs that are smaller than standard early in the laying cycle. It also often results in egg production before hens are capable of producing a quality germ cell. Lighting birds later than 20-22 weeks allows females to become larger and more mature at the onset of production. Unfortunately, lighting birds later will likely also delay egg production until 25-26 weeks. However, this may or may not affect the total number of hatching eggs produced.

Ovulatory Cycle
 Yolk is deposited into follicles as they proceed through the hierarchy to become mature. Two requirements must be met for the follicle to ovulate. First, the follicle must send a hormonal signal to the hypothalamus through the release of progesterone that signals that it is mature. Second, the hypothalamus must receive the signal from the mature follicle during a 6 to 8 hour period of the day in which the hypothalamus is responsive to the progesterone signal (Robinson, 1999). Follicular maturation typically takes longer than 24 hours, which means, consequently, that the ovulatory cycle is set back slightly each day as eggs are laid progressively later in each day similar to the sequence shown in Table 1. Hens that have slow rates of follicular maturation (26-28 hours or more) lay short (2-3 day) sequences. On the other hand, hens that lay very long sequences typically have maturation rates of 24 hours, or perhaps less. Sequence length changes throughout the egg production year with the longest sequences seen at the time of peak production at about 30-35 weeks of age. All hens lay one characteristically long sequence of eggs known as the “prime sequence” which in broiler breeders is usually about 20 eggs in length (Robinson, 1999).

Feed Requirements
While feeding programs differ across the country due to differences in integrators, complexes, weather conditions, seasons and genetic strains of birds, it is important to be continually adjusting the feeding program to provide the nutrients needed for optimum performance. Breeders require these nutrients for body maintenance, growth and egg production.

Body maintenance requirements, which include maintaining body temperature and systems within the bird that allow for digestion, respiration, excretion and immune response, range from 50 to 75% of a hen’s daily needs. As with most animals, body maintenance needs have priority, since the breeder hen must maintain her own body to survive. While the growth needs of hens during the post-peak production period do not contribute greatly to the hen’s daily nutrient requirements, pre-peak growth can be substantial. Nutrient needs for reproduction are a function of the number and size of eggs produced. In general, egg production exerts more influence on nutrient requirements than does egg size. This is part of the reason a service technician always has his/her calculator in hand and adjusts the feed allocation on each visit to the farm. This is an attempt to maximize egg numbers and keep hen body weight on target, since overwieght hens produce fewer eggs than trimmer hens.

Table 1. Times of oviposition for individual hens laying 2- to 7-egg sequences¹.
Sequence Length Time of Oviposition
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7
2 eggs 09:28 AM 01:30 PM           
3 eggs 08:08 AM 11:26 AM 02:40 PM         
4 eggs 08:20 AM 09:45 AM 01:45 PM 03:37 PM       
5 eggs 07:56 AM 09:03 AM 10:45 AM 01:11 PM 03:05 PM     
6 eggs 07:20 AM 07:59 AM 09:04 AM 10:11 AM 12:56 PM 03:40 PM   
7 eggs 07:47 AM 08:15 AM 09:20 AM 09:40 AM 11:36 AM 01:09 PM 03:24 PM
¹ Adapted from Robinson, 1999.


Flock Uniformity
Flock uniformity is critical to proper feed allotments. If there is a great deal of variability in body weight, and all birds have equal opportunity to eat, the small birds will over-consume and larger birds will under-consume in relation to their nutrient requirements (Robinson, 1999). Uniformity issues are most critical at the time of photo stimulation and will usually result in poor peak performance as well as significant problems in post peak periods. In non-uniform flocks, birds receive the same feed allotment, but feeds are formulated for birds in lay. Since birds in lay have higher nutrient requirements than non-laying birds, nonlaying birds will over consume relative to their requirements and get fat, which will hinder future performance. Clearly, uniformity is necessary to obtain peak performance in breeder females.

Summary
Properly managing the sexual maturation of the modern broiler breeder female is critical to obtaining a high peak and large overall number of quality hatching eggs. The most critical management period for broiler breeders is from photo stimulation (lighting) to peak production. Management deficiencies during this period are always costly and often cannot be compensated for at a later date. Broiler breeders require nutrients for maintenance, growth and egg production. Maintenance needs are met first and until that happens, growth and egg production are reduced. Adjusting the feed allotment throughout the lay cycle controls bird nutrient intake. Intake must be strictly controlled to prevent hens from becoming overweight resulting in decreased egg production. Flocks must be uniform in weight and body condition in order to properly allocate feed allotments. Uniformity is especially critical at the time of lighting. Flocks that vary excessively in uniformity are nearly impossible to properly manage from a feed allotment standpoint. This will have a negative impact on performance and may lead to a low, flat peak and decreased overall production. Remember that the key to managing the modern broiler breeder female is a combination of 1) correct body weight and uniformity, 2) light stimulation, and 3) feed stimulation. A sound, consistent management program must be in place that will address each of these areas in order to be successful.

References
Robinson, F.E. 1995. Broiler breeder research update: Limiting ovarian development to maximize chick production in broiler breeders. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Available at: {Accessed 11/26/02}.
Robinson, F.E. 1999. Management for control of ovarian development in broiler breeders. Ross Technical Bulletin. April 1999. Ross Breeders, Inc.

[mikey]

Turkey Coronavirus and Astrovirus in Britain
A study into the prevalence of turkey coronavirus and astrovirus in Britain found that the disease was most common in young birds aged between three and 18 weeks, writes Chris Harris, Senior Editor for ThePoultrySite.


Turkey coronavirus, an acute and highly contagious enteric disease that results in economic losses on turkey farms was seen initially in the USA in the 1990's. Studies in the US showed that the condition led to poor fed conversion, poor weight gain and an increase in the use of medication.

The studies in the US also showed that the condition caused poultry enteritis mortality syndrome (PEMS) in the young birds with the most deaths spiking at about 19 days of age.

Speaking at the British Poultry Council Turkey Research Conference, Dr Francesca Day, who now works with the Department of the Environment Food and Rural Affairs, said that the economic consequences for the outbreaks in the US were that mortality could be very high, dependent on factors such as the viral load or the presence of bacteria. Turkey coronavirus (TCoV) brought the survival in the flocks down from 93 per cent to 86 per cent.

Dr Day said that it had been proved in the US that Turkey coronavirus and astrovirus, which is an immunosuppressive, was often associated with other disease and a UK study was established to discover the prevalence in Britain and the effects the conditions were having on turkey flocks.

The disease, TCoV was first confirmed in Britain in 2001. The incidence found it in 13 day old poults with 20 per cent showing symptoms of stunting, unevenness and lameness and a mortality rate of four per cent.

The UK experiment looked at the frequency of TCoV and TAstV in flocks across England and Wales. It looked to find out whether the conditions were associated with other disease, a what age the birds were infected and what percentage of one-off scouring cases are associated with the condition. The study also looked at how many genotypes of TCoV and TAstV are circulating in Britain.

The studies took samples on a weekly basis from poults aged from one day to 20 days at a specific site and random samples were also taken from birds at any age when they showed signs of scouring. Sera was also taken from 10 birds at one day, 10 weeks and 20 weeks.

"Between 300 and 500 samples were taken and processed through extracts from the faeces," Dr Day said. "We took all the steps to avoid cross contamination in the labs."

The lab tests were able to detect the amount of infectious virus in each sample.

In the tests on the randomly selected birds that were scouring, 11 of the 34 flocks tested were TCoV positive. In the longitudinal tests where the birds were tested from one to 20 days, 24 out of 145 samples - six out of 17 flocks - were TCoV positive.





Positive samples of TCoV were from birds aged between three and 18 weeks old and for TAstV from birds one week to 12 weeks old.



All the positive samples were from birds aged between three and 18 weeks old and 76 per cent of the positive samples came from birds aged over six weeks. However, the tests also revealed that TCoV was not only found in scouring flocks - 22 per cent of the longitudinal tests were found to have TCoV, while 33 per cent of the one off samples from the scouring flocks had the condition. The tests also showed that 13 out of 36 flocks (36 per cent) that were scouring were positive for TAstV, while 10 out of the general studied 17 flocks (59 per cent) tested positive for TAstV. All these positive samples were from birds aged between one week and 12 weeks. Dr Day said that while TAstV had not been discovered only in diseased flocks, the study found that usually they were unwell when they contracted the condition.

From the sera tests, 59 flocks were analysed and a 49 per cent prevalence of TCoV was found.

Dr Day said that in the US the preventative measures that were taken included removal of any dead birds and good management of the litter as well as controlling contact with vermin and wild birds. Prevention was also aided by monitoring for the conditions and switching from multi-age to single age sites.



Note
The survey was a PhD study conducted by Dr Francesca Day and Dr Dave Cavanagh and Dr Paul Britton at the Institute of Animal Health and sponsored by Merial.
 March 2008

[mikey]

Health Issues Facing the US Turkey Industry
Published in Poultry Health Report, August/Winter 2007, a National Institute for Animal Agriculture Publication. The lack of approved efficacious drugs continues to be a top challenge facing the U.S. turkey industry.

That was a key point delivered by Dr. Charles Corsiglia, Foster Farms, Fresno, Calif., when he spoke at the annual meeting of the United States Animal Health Association (USAHA) in October.

Dr. Corsiglia’s presentation centered on information gleaned from a poll of turkey industry veterinarians regarding the health status and issues facing the industry between August 2006 and August 2007. The poll was conducted by Dr. Steven Corsiglia, Alpharma Animal Health, West Jefferson, N.C.; Dr. Mark Blakley, Carroll’s Turkeys, Warsaw, N.C.; and Dr. Dave Mills, Jennie-O Turkey Store Company, Willmar, Minn.

“The survey shows that the turkey industry supports the scientific examination of the evidence in the cases against the use of antibiotics in agriculture, and supports the continued judicious use of antibiotics in animal agriculture,” Dr. Corsiglia stated.

That said, the turkey veterinarians participating in the poll listed the lack of approved, efficacious drugs as their No. 1 issue facing the industy.

“For example, the withdrawal of the new application for drug approval (NADA) for enrofloxacin use in poultry in 2005 leaves the industry with only tetracycline and penicillin as available therapeutics, and neither of these are adequate against colibacillosis or fowl cholera, the second-rated and ninth-rated disease concerns, respectively, in the poll,” Dr. Corsiglia explained.

Survey participants ranked blackhead, also known as histomoniasis, No. 22. This disease, Dr. Corsiglia noted, has no efficacious drug approved for use in turkeys. A total of 68 reported cases of blackhead were reported between August 2006 and August 2007. Losses to blackhead have been severe and can be devastating in affected individual flocks. Sporadic cases are occurring in North America.

“Dimetridazole was extremely efficacious and previously approved for use in turkeys for the prevention and treatment of blackhead, but it was banned in 1987,” Dr. Corsiglia told the group. “The lack of any legal treatment for histomoniasis is of concern, especially in the case of valuable turkey breeder candidate flocks. It seems unconscionable that the industry is unable to prevent the suffering and death in flocks affected by histomoniasis when effective, yet unapproved, treatments exist.”

Dr. Corsiglia said the authors of the report urge the FDA consider allowing limited use of such products in valuable breeder stock.

The poll ranked late mortality as No. 3 and leg problems as No. 4 among the turkey industry’s top concerns. Late mortality is defined as mortality in excess of 1.5 percent per week in toms 17 weeks and older. Mortality was not diagnosed to a specific disease or cause.

Excess cumulative mortality of 5 to 10 percent in toms prior to slaughter has been reported. Dr. Corsiglia said late mortality may be associated with physiologic or biomechanical deficiencies following early rapid growth in heavy toms achieving genetic potential, aggressive behavior noted in mature toms, cannibalism, leg problems and/or hypertension.

The survey revealed that leg problems, such as spiral fractures of the tibia or femur, are a common complaint.


Although the survey average decreased from 3.5 to 3.1 and moved from No. 3 to No. 5, survey results show that cellulitis remains a major disease issue across all geographic regions. Dr. Corsiglia shared that cellulitis is most commonly seen in, but not limited to, commercial male turkeys nearing market age, and the prevalence and severity of cellulitis continues to increase.

According to the poll, veterinarians indicate that the occurrence of cellulitis is now confirmed at younger ages and in both toms and hens.

Individuals participating in the poll ranked heat stress at No. 6 and poultry enteritis of unknown etiologies at No. 7.

Dr. Corsiglia shared that highly pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5N1) continues to infect poultry in Southeast Asia with sporadic introductions in Europe and Africa. He said that poultry in the U.S. have continued to remain negative for H5N1. The concern does exist, however, that the virus could spread to the U.S. through the illegal transport of infected birds or migration of infected wild birds.

The National Poultry Improvement Plan (NPIP) Commercial Poultry H5/H7 LPAI surveillance program, Dr. Corsiglia noted, provides for 100 percent indemnity for commercial plan participants. In many geographic areas where flock isolation is practical, he said controlled marketing may be the preferred method of eradication since consumption of meat from LPAI flocks does not pose a risk to the public health. If flock destruction is necessary in the eradication of H5/H7 LPAI, then 100 percent indemnity is appropriate, as it is already provided for in the eradication of HPAI.

Dr. Corsiglia called federal regulations governing the use of autogenous veterinary biologicals “antiquated” and inhibitory toward effective preventive applications in the poultry industry. He said main issues include the narrow time limits on the use of a microbiological isolate and the restrictions requiring use only in the herd of origin. As such, the turkey industry urges the Veterinary Services-Center for Veterinary Biologics to revise these regulations in favor of a more effective and user-friendly approach.

The Top 10 Disease Issues in Turkey health survey (September 2007) according to U.S. veterinarians:

Issue Score Average (1-5)
Lack of approved, efficacious drugs                     4.7
Colibacillosis 3.4
Late Mortality 3.4
Leg Problems 3.3
Cellulitis 3.1
Heat stress 3.1
Poult Enteritis of unknown etiologies 3.0
Bordetella avium 2.7
Cholera 2.7
Breast Blisters and Breast Buttons 2.7




February 2008

[mikey]

Factors Influencing Shell Quality
This is a three-part series of articles analysing egg shell quality. It was written by Dr Lokesh Gupta, Regional Technical Manager, Avitech

NEW BOOK
 A comprehensive practical guide to improving egg quality.
BUY NOW Part 1: Maintaining Egg Shell Quality
Part 2: Factors Influencing Shell Quality
Part 3: How to Improve Shell Quality

Numerous factors affect the functional quality of the egg shell mostly prior to the egg is laid. The thickness of the shell is determined by the amount of time it spends in the shell gland (uterus) and the rate of calcium deposition during shell formation. If the egg spends a short period in the shell gland, the thickness will be less. Also, the time of the day when the egg is laid determines the thickness of the shell. In general, the earlier in the day or light portion of the photoperiod, the thicker the shell will be.

Strain: Some strains of the birds may be able to deposit calcium for the egg shell at a faster rate than others, resulting in better deposition. It is observed that darker brown eggs have a higher shell quality than lighter brown eggs.


Diseases: Diseases like infectious bronchitis (IB), Newcastle disease (ND), avian influenza (AI) and egg drop syndrome (EDS) affect the shell quality. IB virus causes soft/rough shelled eggs, discolouration and wrinkling of the shell. EDS virus affects only the shell gland but with ND or IB, every portion of the reproductive tract can be affected.


Management: Poor housing, high ambient temperature, rough handling of the eggs will affect the eggshell quality. Since large eggs are more prone to cracks, the egg size must be managed through proper nutritional and lighting management. Management: Poor housing, high ambient temperature, rough handling of the eggs will affect the eggshell quality. Since large eggs are more prone to cracks, the egg size must be managed through proper nutritional and lighting management.

Eggs from hens in the 3L:1D (3 days light : 1 day dark) regimen had a significantly greater shell breaking strength than eggs from hens in the 16L: 8D (16 hours light : 8 hours dark) regimen.


Moulting: The management practice of "forced" or "induced" moulting has shown to improve shell quality in all ageing flock. Following the moult, egg specific gravity, shell weight, shell thickness and percentage shell were either the same as they had been prior to the moult, or had improved, for all strains. Egg shell breaking strength improved in all strains as the result of the induced moulting.


Age of Bird: As the hen ages, the thickness of the shell usually declines. Older flocks lay larger eggs, which break easily. The hen is genetically capable of placing only a finite amount of calcium in the shell. Secondly, hen looses some of her ability to mobilize calcium from the bone, and is less able to produce the needed calcium carbonate. The absorption and mobilization of calcium decreases to less than 50% of normal after 40 weeks of age.


Drugs: For example, sulfa drugs affect the eggshell quality whereas tetracyclines have some beneficial effects.


Water Quality: Many studies showed that saline drinking water, including tap water containing sodium chloride supplied to mature laying hens at concentrations similar to those found in underground bore water, has an adverse effect on eggshell quality while having little effect on feed intake, egg production or egg weight. In contrast some reports indicate that there were no visible shell defects and specific gravity was also not adversely affected.


Stress: While a genetic predisposition for egg and eggshell quality exists, good genes can be upset by environmental stresses. The shell is formed by the activity of cells lying the oviduct and uterus. Under stress the secretions of these cells become acidic and the cells can be damaged or destroyed. In extreme cases, stress induced effects can result in eggshells that have excess deposits of calcium - a sort of powdery "bloom" on the surface and result in misshapen eggs. Relocation stress is known to have effects on the visual appearance of eggs produced; increasing the incidence of calcium coated and checked (misshapen) eggs.

Major types of relocations, such as movement from one type of housing to a completely new housing environment, can produce severe visual defects of the egg.


Environmental Temperature: One of the factors contributing to poorer eggshell quality in hot weather is inadequate feed intake. Eggshell quality is somewhat compromised during summer months. During exposure to warm environmental temperature, the hen reacts by increasing its rate of breathing (panting) in order to cool itself. This causes the lowering of CO2 in the blood and produces a condition termed "respiratory alkalosis". The pH of the blood becomes alkaline and the availability of calcium for the eggshell is reduced. This disturbance in acid-base balance causes an increase in soft-shelled eggs during summer.

Temporary thinning of the egg shell may occur during periods of high ambient temperature (above 25ºC) since feed intake is reduced. The shells quickly regain normal thickness when temperatures are reduced and feed intake increases.

Respiratory alkalosis also causes increased carbonate loss through the kidney resulting in competition between kidney and uterus for carbonate ion, consequently resulting in poor eggshell thickness. During heat stress calcium intake is reduced as a direct consequence of reduced feed intake and this stimulate bone resorption resulting in hyperphosphatemia. This inhibits the formation of calcium carbonate in the shell gland. Also heat stress reduces carbonic anhydrase (Zinc dependent enzyme) activity in the uterus. Under heat stress more blood is shunted to the peripheral tissues with concomitant reduction in flow of blood to the oviduct resulting in poor shell quality. Lastly the ability of layers to convert vitamin D3 to its active form is reduced during heat stress.


Nutrition: There is a complex relationship between calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D3 and the hormonal system of the layer in calcium metabolism during lay. Calcium and phosphorus balance is critical for proper egg production and eggshell quality. Layer ration should be formulated with correct amount of calcium and phosphorus (usually 3.5 - 4.0% calcium, 0.35-0.40% phosphorus)
Calcium: Both excess and deficiency of calcium will negatively affect the shell quality. An egg contains almost 2 grams calcium; hence an average of 4 grams of calcium intake per day is required by a layer to maintain good shell quality since only 50 - 60% of dietary calcium is actually used in shell formation.

Calcium requirement of a laying hen is 4 - 6 times that of a non-laying hen. The egg enters the shell-gland region of the oviduct - the uterus - 19 hours prior to oviposition, and the shell does not store calcium ions to attach on protein matrix.

During the last 15 hours of shell formation, calcium movement across the shell gland reaches a rate of 100-150 mg/hr. This process draws calcium from two sources: diet and bone. Normal blood calcium level is about 20 - 30 mg/dl with a normal layer ration of 3.56% calcium or higher, while layers on a 2% calcium diet, 30- 40% of the calcium is derived from bone. It is therefore important to have pullets, prior to lay, on a high level of calcium to store it on body.

Intestinal absorption of calcium in the diet is about 40% when the shell gland is inactive, but reaches 72% when active. This time closely coincides with late afternoon or the dark hours for the layer. Having higher calcium levels in the gut during this time is important to ensure calcium is being taken from the diet and not bone. Large particle sizes of calcium sources allow calcium to be metered throughout this time.

In growers, most importantly, high calcium levels during the growth period will interfere with the proper development of the parathyroid gland by increasing gut pH, which will decrease absorption. The damage to the parathyroid would be permanent and would affect the bird's laying cycle afterwards.


Phosphorus: The phosphorus content of the eggshell is small i.e. 20mg, compared with 120mg in the egg contents. There is also uneven distribution of the phosphorus in the inner and outer layers of the shell. Phosphate ions have an inhibitory effect on the CaCO3 and bring the shell formation to an end.

High levels of phosphorus in the blood will inhibit the mobilization of calcium from bone. The absorption of calcium and phosphorus are interrelated and can be influenced by:

Source and form of calcium and phosphorus: Calcium source and particle size plays a role in calcium level in the gut when needed. Phosphorus must be in a form that is available and usable by the layer.

Intestinal pH: Phosphorus absorption is optimal at pH 5.5-6.0. When the pH is higher than 6.5, absorption of phosphorus markedly decreases. Excess free fatty acids in the diet can cause the pH to decrease and therefore, interfere with calcium and phosphorus absorption.

Calcium and phosphorus ratio: High calcium or phosphorus levels in the intestine reduce the absorption of both. High calcium increase the pH in the gut and phosphorus absorption is decreased along with zinc and manganese absorption. High plasma phosphorus decreases calcium absorption from the gut and calcium mobilization from the bone. Phosphorus is an integral part of the acid-base balance in the body. The proper ratio of calcium to phosphorus (Ca: P ratio) for growing birds is 1.5-2.0 Ca: 1.0P.

Vitamin D3 : Vitamin D3 metabolite is essential in absorption of the Calcium.


Vitamin D3 is vital for absorption and mobilization of calcium during shell synthesis. The importance of adequate vitamin D3 intake by the hen is obvious and it is essential for proper calcium and phosphorus utilization. However, excess vitamin D3 and its metabolites have not shown to benefit eggshell quality when normal hens are already consuming adequate vitamin D3 .Vitamin D3 is the major control element in stimulating calcium absorption from the intestine. This effect is facilitated by the synthesis of calcium-binding protein (CBP). Vitamin D3 intake must be adequate. The function of vitamin D3 is related to its metabolite 1,25 dihydroxy D3 that is formed in the bird's liver and kidneys. Any problem that affects the integrity of these organs or the parathyroid gland will have an adverse effect on the action of vitamin D3 and thereby calcium absorption and metabolism.


Diet formulation: Shell breaking strength was greater for the sorghum diet than wheat or barley based diet and less for maize-soya diet. High levels of calcium and phytate in the diet of laying hen reduce the availability of trace minerals, especially manganese and zinc. Addition of non starch polysaccharides breaking and phytase enzymes to the feed tends to improve eggshell quality.

No deleterious effects on egg and eggshell quality were observed when levels of chloride and magnesium were upto three times higher than recommended levels. Excess dietary chlorine, however, decreases blood bicarbonate concentration, which plays a pivotal role in eggshell calcification. Low dietary cationic-anionic balance, presence of non starch polysaccharides, mycotoxins and contaminants results in poor shell quality.
Part 1: Maintaining Egg Shell Quality
Part 2: Factors Influencing Shell Quality
Part 3: How to Improve Shell Quality

March 2008

[mikey]

How to Improve Shell Quality
This is a three-part series of articles analysing egg shell quality. It was written by Dr Lokesh Gupta, Regional Technical Manager, Avitech.

NEW BOOK
 A comprehensive practical guide to improving egg quality.
BUY NOW Part 1: Maintaining Egg Shell Quality
Part 2: Factors Influencing Shell Quality
Part 3: How to Improve Shell Quality

Vitamnin C (Ascorbic Acid): Ascorbic acid is essential for synthesis of organic matrix (tropocollagen) of eggshell. Ascorbic acid alleviates the ill affects of heat stress by reducing the plasma cortisone level in the bird. Ascorbic acxid is a factor in the absorption of Vitamin D to the active hormonal metabolite 'Calcitriol' (OH)2D3), which stimulates intestinal absorption of calcium and thus elevates plasma calscium to a level that supports normal mineralisation of bones.

A dietary level of 250 mg ascorbic acid/kg diet of moulted hen improves the egg production and eggshell quality by enhancing intestinal calcium absorption or by resorption of bone Ca mediated through 1,25 (OH)2D3) production.


Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3):Hens aged 30 weeks fed with 1% dietary NaHCO3 and housed at 32ºC either in conventional or intermittent lighting programme had improved eggshell breaking strength. The improvement in eggshell quality was more in the group with intermittent lighting programme. Supplementation of NaHCO3 to laying hens at high temperatures is a means of improving eggshell quality as hens consume the additional bicarbonate during the period of active shell formation.

The addition of sodium bicarbonate or purified sodium sesquicarbonate, has shown to elevate the dietary electrolyte balance, improved acid-base balance and has a positive effect on eggshell quality.


Aluminosilicates: Results indicate as much as 40% improvement in egg specific gravity and 2.2% improvement in feed conversion by the addition of 0.75% sodium aluminosilicate to layer diets. Shell quality increased in summer but not in winter. However, care must be undertaken while selecting composition and ion exchange capacity of silicates.


Minerals: Zinc, Manganese and copper are compounds involved in the metabolic process of eggshell formation. These trace minerals work as co-factors of enzymes involved with shell matrix formation. Carbonic anhydrase, which is zinc dependant, stimulates calcium carbonate deposition for eggshell formation. Polymerase enzyme, which is dependent on manganese, forms the shell glycoprotein matrix or foundation.

Supplementing the diet with highly bioavailable minerals like mineral-amino acid complexes increases the eggshell weight and eggshell thickness. Copper affects the synthesis of shell membrane by activity of copper containing enzyme lysyl oxidase.

Dietary supplementation of zinc methionine improved the shell breaking strength. There was no improvement in shell quality where zinc sulphate was supplemented to approximate zinc concentration of zinc methionine.


Calcium: Provide extra calcium to the older hens @1g/bird in the form of oyster shell over and above normal requirement in summer months. Maintain the desired particle size of calcium source at the time of shell formation. The minimum size of calcium source to improve gizzard retention is about 1 mm. Solubility and absorption of calcium source must be major criteria. Magnesium content of calcium source must be as low as possible. Organic calcium is also a good option.


Chemicals: Injection of Indomethacin 4hr or 16hr post-entrance of egg into uterus delays oviposition and prevents premature expulsion of some soft shelled and shell less eggs. Chemotherapeutic agents like salicylic acid, aspirin reduce body temperature of laying hens during heat stress thereby alleviates its ill effects.


Management: Reducing egg breakage at farms requires constant attention to management details and proper equipment maintenance. Some methods to reduce the percentage of broken eggs are:


Provide cushioning of some type at the front of egg collection area of the cages. This will soften the impact of eggs rolling on to the collection wires and reduce the incidences of hairline cracks. Be sure that cushioning is positioned correctly to receive the eggs from the cages.


Collect the eggs at least twice a day and more often if possible. Eggs rolling down the cage floor have an increased chance of being broken if there are several eggs already in the collection area.


Maintain egg collection wires/trays in good condition. Examine them regularly for sharp edges, any foreign objects and for excessive wear and tear of the wire mesh/trays.


Ensure that eggs do not pile up; dead birds protruding from the cage often block the egg flow to the collection area and causes spilling of the egg on the floor.


Routinely check the quality and condition of the egg trays in which the eggs are collected from the cages.


Train egg collection workers for carefully picking the eggs from the cage area and gently placing them in the collection trays without slowing down the collection process.


Be sure that ventilation is well maintained and fans, if any are working properly during hot weathers. Try to provide constant ambient temperature as far as possible.


Reduce sound, activity and movement of workers inside the layer houses as much as possible to reduce disturbances to the birds.


Procure good quality feed ingredients devoid of contaminants, adulterants and mycotoxins and provide wholesome water at all times to the birds.


Reduce flies, and rats causing annoyance to the birds.


Check size, specific gravity, shell thickness routinely and if any change is observed, try to correct it by various means.
Conclusion :
Though precise statistics are not available, the economic loss due to poor eggshell quality is estimated to be Rs. 6 billion being at very conservative (assuming 150 million commercial layers and each bird losing @ Rs. 40/bird/ year due to cracked eggs). The above amount excludes the hatching eggs by breeding birds. These eggs have already been paid for the cost of production, so any successful effort to market a higher percentage means more net returns for the egg producer. The future of egg industry will go together with producer to innovate and supply quality eggs at reasonable cost.

Maintaining eggshell quality is a complex activity. it is impossible, even with current knowledge, to correct all eggshell quality problems. We can, however, make significant reductions in the number of eggs lost due to poor shell quality. This can be accomplished if one realises that no single factor is usually responsible for egg breakage. Many factors are known to be related with eggshell quality including, flock health problems, management practices, environmental conditions, breeding and adequacy of nutrition.

Part 1: Maintaining Egg Shell Quality
Part 2: Factors Influencing Shell Quality
Part 3: How to Improve Shell Quality

January 2008

[mikey]

6 Responses to “Various Tips in Raising Broiler Chickens”
annonymus Says:
March 2nd, 2008 at 3:40 pm
ilan ba dapat ang ilalagay na soap powder sa pagkain at anong araw ito ipapakain?

andre Says:
March 4th, 2008 at 12:40 pm
what is the feed consumption of every chickens? how many kilogram of feeds are consumed in every broiler?

pinoyfarmer Says:
March 4th, 2008 at 12:46 pm
Hello andre, consumption varies by feeds company. I suggest you go to your local feeds store and ask for a broiler feeding guide. They usually have leaflets and reading materials that are sponsored by the feeds companies.

dindo Says:
April 29th, 2008 at 1:40 am
Hi, I’m just asking what are the procedures in raising the “bantres”. I will be glad to know what feed best for what month and how many times in a day the chicken will be given.

pinoyfarmer Says:
April 29th, 2008 at 2:31 am
dindo, bantres or broiler chickens are raised for their meat so the goal is to get the target weight at the least possible time. these chickens are fed on an ad libitum basis or unlimited feeding. when given unlimited feeding, the bantres can eat whenever it likes thus being able to achieve its maximum growth. from a feeding guide from a local feeds company in my place, it shows:

AGE —– FEED TYPE
———————————-
1-7 days —– Chick Booster Mash
8-20 days —– Broiler Starter Mash
21-28 days —– Broiler Starter Crumble
29-market —– Broiler Finisher Crumble/Pellet

Take note that for the first 20 days of the broiler, it will be fed on mash so as to improve digestion for the chicks.

Please refer to your feeds supplier for the right amount of feeds to give to the chickens.

[mikey]

Layers Production and Business Guide(Part 1)
Learn the easy way of jumpstarting your own layering business.

Chicken egg production in the Philippines is a minor industry compared to the broiler production sector that takes center stage in the Philippine chicken trade. But the chicken layer sector had the most growth between 2001 and 2002 because of the increase of chicken layers in the country.


In 2002 alone, chicken egg production contributed 3% of the total value of agriculture in the Philippines.

With the current socio-economic problems in the country, the chicken egg is one of the cheapest food products that are vastly available in the market. The chicken egg is also considered as one of the most complete food sources with high nutritional value.

Chicken egg production in the Philippines mainly serves the domestic market.

MANAGEMENT OF THE LAYER FARM

The success of the egg-production business greatly depends on successful management of the layer farm. Each factor discussed below contributes to the success of your egg production business.

Housing and bedding
Poultry housing and equipment can be as simple as a shed roof with chicken wire fencing, nests, water fountains and hand-filled feeders to an environmentally controlled fully automated cage layer house. Make sure that the birds are given adequate floor space. A maximum of three birds per square meter is recommended. Provide birds with up to 100% (depending on severity of conditions) more floor space than is recommended for temperate climates.

In the laying house, supply at least 1 nest per 4 females or at least provide one 10″ x 10″ nest for every 5 hens in your flock. Place nests 24″ above the floor and away from the roosts. Keep the nesting material clean and dry.

Lighting, heating and ventilation
Heat stress is one of the major risk factors that one must consider in layer farm management. The ideal temperature for laying hens is between 18 degrees and 29 degrees Celsius.

Air movement around birds at floor level has a beneficial cooling effect. In shade houses, take full advantage of natural breezes using paddles or circulating fans in periods of still weather and particularly during the heat of the day. In controlled environment houses, use inlets with moveable louvers which can direct moving air directly on to the birds at floor level.

In shade houses, natural daylight must be supplemented with artificial lighting in order to obtain desirable lighting patterns which are necessary to adequately control sexual maturity. A constant or decreasing lighting pattern during rearing is essential to prevent too early sexual maturity. An increasing or constant light pattern is necessary after 22-24 weeks of age.

Brooding equipment
Poultry housing should provide clean, dry, comfortable quarters for birds throughout the year.

To brood chicks, you need adequate heat and space. The house and equipment should be clean and in good repair.

Set up and warm the brooding area before the chicks arrive. Chicks will need a warm, draft-free location with proper ventilation and access to clean water, appropriate feed and protection.

The normal brooding period, when heat is required, is from the time chicks hatch until they are about six weeks old. Chicks may be brooded many places on the farm. The main requirements are adequate space, a reliable source of heat and proper ventilation.

A brooder house measuring 10 by 12 feet will take care of 120 chicks to eight weeks of age. The chick guard ring is 12 inches high arranged in a circle 6 feet in diameter around the brooder stove. The feeders are placed in a spoke like arrangement radiating outward from underneath the outer portion of the brooder canopy. This provides chicks access to feed and allows them to move freely in and out from the heat source.

Feeding equipment
The mechanics of feeding are nearly as important as the feed itself. Supply enough feeder space so that all the birds can eat at the same time. When space is limited, some birds don’t get enough to eat. Keep feed available for the birds constantly. Meal feeding (giving a limited amount of feed several times each day) can reduce productivity if not managed carefully.

Place feeders so the trough is at the level of the birds’ backs. This practice reduces feed spillage, which encourages rodents, wastes feed, and costs money.

Watering equipment
The distribution of waterers should be such as to minimize the distance any bird has to move in order to drink; ideally, both feed and water should be distributed so that no bird has to move more than 1 1/2 meters to get its requirements.
Whenever possible, use a water supply such as well which provides cool water. Bury or insulate water pipes to maintain the original coolness. Additionally, supply troughs in which breeders may dip their combs and wattles so that evaporation of water cools the blood supply in the combs and wattles. In extremely hot weather, do not place drugs or other substances in the water which might decrease its palatability.

Miscellaneous equipment
For large scale farms, a feed mill is usually used to automate the distribution of feeds. Feeds are distributed using an auger system. Egg transporting mechanisms are also used to minimize the occurrence of human egg handling. These automatic egg collectors are also used to place the eggs into plastic trays that will carry the eggs into the processing and sorting facility via a large overhead belt.

Dead bird disposal
Disposal of dead birds on the farm continues to be a challenge from the standpoints of cost, environmental safety, biosecurity and practicality. While we, hopefully, have to deal with only a relatively small amount each day, disposal or preservation must also occur daily in order to meet the above challenges.

Burial has been the method of choice for years because of its low cost and convenience. A deep pit with inside framing and a tight-fitting cover can be constructed, or an open trench prepared by a backhoe can be progressively filled.
Incineration is probably the most biologically safe method of disposal. It creates only a small amount of benign waste that can be easily disposed of and does not attract pests. It is also a serviceable option where a high water table or soil type precludes excavation.

Biosecurity
As a bird owner, keeping your birds healthy is a top priority. Your birds can become sick or die from exposure to just a few unseen bacteria, viruses, or parasites. In a single day, these germs can multiply and infect all your birds. However, by practicing biosecurity, you can keep your birds healthy.

Restrict access to your property and your birds. Consider fencing off the area where your birds are to form a barrier between “clean” and “dirty” areas. The clean area is the immediate area surrounding your birds, and the dirty or buffer area must be considered to be infected with germs, even if the birds appear healthy and disease free. Allow only people who take care of your birds to come into contact with them.

Scrubbing your shoes with a long handled scrub brush and disinfectant will remove droppings, mud, or debris. Clothes should be washed in a washing machine with laundry detergent. Wash your hands thoroughly with soap, water, and a disinfectant before entering your bird area.

Keep cages, food, and water clean on a daily basis. Clean and disinfect equipment that comes in contact with your birds or their droppings. That includes tools such as feed scoops, shovels, rakes, and brooms. All manure must be removed before disinfectant can work, so clean surfaces with soap and water first. Properly dispose of dead birds by burial or incineration or take them to a landfill.

FLOCK CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Chick quality
Healthy flocks start from healthy stocks. So from the start, choose only healthy chicks for the farm. Do not acquire chicks that have wet vents and dull eyes. Characteristics of healthy chicks are dry, fluffy feathers, bright eyes and alert and active appearance.


Brooding
Sufficient heat should be provided to keep day-old chicks warm during the day or night. Abrupt changes in brooder temperature should be avoided during the first two weeks.

Provide adequate space for chicks as they grow. Overcrowding is one of the factors affecting poor growth. Also provide a good light source, as a well-lighted brooder encourages chicks to start feeding. Also prove good ventilation for chicks to avoid future respiratory diseases. Egg-type chicks should be transferred from the brooding house to the grower pens at six to eight weeks old. They are then transferred to the laying house when they reach the age 16 to 18 weeks old or three weeks before they lay eggs.

Make sure to provide anti-stress drugs, vitamins and minerals to the birds two to five days before and after their transfer. Also make sure the bird houses are thoroughly cleaned before the birds are transferred.

Commercial layer strains in use today yield high numbers of productive pullets when reared under recommended breeder guidelines to be at target body weights at the desired time of reaching sexual maturity. The only selection in most instances is to remove deformed, unhealthy, and grossly underdeveloped birds when the move is made from the growing to the laying house. In the FFA (Future Farmers of America) judging contest there is a class of pullets evaluated on their production potential using the following guidelines.

The head should be moderately long and well-filled in forward to the eyes to avoid a crow-headed appearance. The face should be clean-cut, smooth and free from wrinkles. The comb should be large and bright red in color. The eyes should be large, bright, and prominent.

The pullet should be fully feathered with plumage of good quality. Shanks should show a good healthy color, but place no emphasis on color intensity with birds of this age. Feet and toes should be completely normal and the bird should be well balanced on her legs.

The body should be deep, broad, and well developed, with a heart girth of ample circumference. The keel should be of good length and the back should be relatively long, broad, and flat.

Sexual maturity should be expressed by size and development of the comb and wattles. Early sexual maturity should not be encouraged and size of development should be preferable to sexual maturity.

Layer hens may start laying eggs at age 20 to 22 weeks. They will reach maximum egg production at age 30 weeks to 36 weeks. Egg production of pullets older than 36 weeks may decline then level off. It is also during the first year that layer hens undergo the process of molting. Poor layers will molt early, and late molters are generally the good layers. Layer may produce 10% to 20% less eggs during the second year of production. However, they will also produce larger eggs.

Nutrition and formulating feed for the layer flock
Nutrition and feed are very important factors in ensuring the good performance of hens. Make sure you provide the flock with proper feeds and nutrients to get quality eggs during harvest.

Feed requirement
Feed newly hatched chicks a starter diet until they are about six weeks old. Starter diets are formulated to give proper nutrition to fast growing baby chickens. These feeds usually contain between 18% and 20% protein.

It is not necessary to feed “meat bird starter” to young layer chickens. Diets formulated for starting meat chickens are higher in protein (22% to maximize growth, which is not necessary or desirable for egg laying chickens and is higher in cost. Once the birds reach about six weeks of age, substitute a grower feed for the starter. Grower feeds are about 15% or 16% protein and are formulated to sustain good growth to maturity.

After about 14 weeks of age, you can substitute the grower feed with developer feeds if they are available. These feeds are lower in protein than grower feeds (14% to 15%) and are formulated to prepare young chickens for egg production. Remember, these two feed types are virtually interchangeable; either one can be fed to chickens between six weeks of age and the beginning of egg production.

Once your chickens begin laying eggs, you can choose between layer and breeder feeds. Your choice of feed at this stage depends on how the eggs will be used.

Layer feeds are formulated for chickens that are laying table eggs (those used for food). Layer feeds contain about 16% protein and extra calcium so the chickens will lay eggs with strong shells. Start feeding layer feeds at about 20 weeks of age or when the first egg is laid, whichever occurs first.

Breeder feeds are formulated for chickens that are producing eggs for hatching. These feeds basically are layer feeds containing slightly more protein and fortified with extra vitamins for proper chick development and hatching. However, use of breeder feeds is somewhat questionable for the small flock producer, since the increased cost may not be justified by the potentially slight increase in hatchability.

Nutrient requirements
What we feed our chickens is very important. Chickens use feed for two main purposes: as an energy source to maintain body temperature and to carry on activities such as breathing, walking, eating and digesting the feed and as building material for the development of bone, flesh, feathers and eggs. The feed that chickens eat is made up of water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins. Each nutrient serves a special need.

Carbohydrates make up the biggest share of the poultry diet. In the form of starches or simple sugars, that are needed for body maintenance and energy. Important sources of carbohydrates in poultry feeds are corn, milo and various other grains.

Proteins are complex compounds made up of amino acids. Feed proteins are broken down into amino acids by digestion and converted into boy proteins. Body proteins are used in the construction of body tissue. Tissues that mainly consist of protein are muscles, nerves, cartilage, skin, feathers and beak. The albumin (white) of the egg is also high in protein.

The mineral portion of the feed is inorganic matter. Minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, help build bones and make them strong and rigid. Laying hens also require minerals for eggshell formation.

Grains are low in minerals, so supplements are necessary. Calcium, phosphorus and salt are needed in the greatest amounts. Bone meal and defluorinated and dicalcium phosphates supply additional calcium and phosphorus. Ground limestone and oyster shell are good calcium sources. Trace levels of iodine, iron, manganese and zinc are also included in mineral supplements.

Vitamins occur in feeds in small amounts, but they are absolutely necessary for growth, reproduction and the maintenance of health. They occur in feedstuffs in varying quantities and in different combinations Vitamin A is necessary for the health and proper functioning of the skin and lining of the digestive, reproductive and respiratory tracts. Vitamin D plays an important role in bone formation and the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. The B vitamins are involved in energy metabolism and in many other metabolic functions.

to be continued…

Part 2 –> Layers Production and Business Guide (Part 2)

[mikey]

Layers Production and Business Guide (Part 2)
Chicken egg production in the Philippines is a minor industry compared to the broiler production sector that takes center stage in the Philippine chicken trade. But the chicken layer sector had the most growth between 2001 and 2002 because of the increase of chicken layers in the country.

In 2002 alone, chicken egg production contributed 3% of the total value of agriculture in the Philippines.

With the current socio-economic problems in the country, the chicken egg is one of the cheapest food products that are vastly available in the market. The chicken egg is also considered as one of the most complete food sources with high nutritional value. Chicken egg production in the Philippines mainly serves the domestic market.

Feed compositions
The correct formulation of feed depends upon local conditions. It requires knowledge of the relationship between energy content of the feed and the amount of feed consumed daily. With correct formulation the latter will contain the correct daily allowance of protein, vitamins and minerals. Some vitamin supplementation can be done via the water and a continuous level of vitamin supplementation is virtually essential during all period of heat stress.

Water is the single most important nutrient that chickens consume. Therefore, it is necessary to provide adequate amounts of clean, fresh water daily during growth and egg production. Birds will drink between two and three times as much water by weight as they eat in feed. Their consumption of water increases in warm weather.

Sanitation and waste management
Maintain only a very shallow layer of litter on concrete floors. This will maximize any cooling effect which the concrete floor may have on the birds through absorption of body heat. Dry, dusty litter can cause severe irritation and damage to the eyes of chickens. Avoid dustiness by sprinkling water generously on litter at regular intervals. This spraying can, during extremely hot, dry spells, be advantageously extended to the birds themselves and the feed.

Vaccinations and control of common pests and diseases Many bird diseases can be difficult to diagnose. The list below includes some of the things to look for that signal something might be wrong with your birds. Early detection of signs is very important to prevent the spread of disease.

Watch out for the following signs of disease:
• Sudden increase in bird deaths in your flock
• Sneezing, gasping for air, coughing, and nasal discharge
• Watery and green diarrhea
• Lack of energy and poor appetite
• Drop in egg production or soft- or thin-shelled misshapen eggs
• Swelling around the eyes, neck, and head
• Purple discoloration of the wattles, combs, and legs (Al)
• Tremors, drooping wings, circling, twisting of the head and neck, or lack of movement.

Proper handling of vaccines should be practiced. The quality of a vaccine cannot be guaranteed if the product is mishandled or improperly used after it leaves the manufacturing plant. All vaccines are labeled with instructions for use and dates of expiration.

Suggestions are listed below for an effective vaccination plan for your flock:
1. Rotate vaccine stock. An outdated product may have deteriorated.
2. Each vaccine is designed for a specific route of administration. Use only the recommended route.
3. Do not vaccinate sick birds (except in outbreaks of laryngotracheitis or fowl pox).
4. Protect vaccines from heat and direct sunlight.
5. When using the drinking-water method of vaccination, be sure the water is free of sanitizers and chlorine. Live-virus vaccines are readily destroyed by these chemicals.
6. After vaccinating, burn or disinfect all opened containers to other poultry.
7. Hatcheries and poultry suppliers are usually the best sources for vaccines. Be sure to carefully follow label directions when vaccinating.

[mikey]

Layers Production and Business Guide (Conclusion)
Learn the easy way of harvesting, grading, handling, storing, transporting and marketing for your layering business.

Harvesting poultry is one of the crucial steps in the egg production process. Make sure you have the facilities to ensure proper harvesting of eggs. Eggs should be collected regularly, more so during hot weather. You may collect the eggs often (2-3 times daily). Eggs should then be transferred immediately to the egg cooling room which can be located on the farm site.

If eggs are to be hatched, insulated vans should be used to transport eggs to the hatchery. Daily fumigation of eggs is also recommended.

Hen-day production computation
You can compute your daily production percentage using the following equation:

Hen-Day daily production = Number of Eggs Produced on Daily Basis DIVIDED BY Number of Birds Available on the Flock that day

To compute your produce over a production period, you can use the following computation:

Hen-Housed Egg production = Total Number of Eggs Produced by the Flock DIVIDED BY Total Number of Hens Housed

Egg quality should be maintained throughout the handling and storage of the eggs. The people involved with these processes should be informed about the physical structure and chemical composition of eggs and the factors that affect their quality.

Grading
Grading is one of the important steps in marketing eggs. In this process, eggs go through identification, classification and separation. Grading allows you to set different prices for different sizes and quality levels of eggs. High quality eggs may be priced higher, while eggs with small blood spots may be sold to customers such as bakeries.

Factors to be considered in grading eggs are appearance, internal quality, size, color, and the soundness of the shell.
Eggs are also classified by size (in grams) and the US has the following standard:
• Jumbo = 70 g and above o Extra large = 65-70 g
• Large = 56-65 g
• Medium = 49-56 g
• Small = 42-49 g
• Peewee = 35-42 g

Candling
Quality testing of eggs can be done by candling method. This is the process in which eggs can be tested internally and externally without breaking the egg or causing it damage.

This process can be done by using a candle in a dark room and examining the egg’s interior quality in front of the flame. Another way of Candling is by use of an electric light bulb that has been placed inside a box. Place a hole with three centimeters on the box. This hole is sufficient for eggs 40 to 70 grams in size. A light beam will glow from the hole and allow for egg inspection.

Packaging
Packaging shell eggs is an important part of marketing and eventually, the business. Breakage, shell damage and spoilage can cause severe losses to the farm. These losses can be prevented by proper packaging.

Packaging of shell eggs must allow the eggs to have access to oxygen. Contamination and tainting can be prevented by using odorless and clean packaging. Remember to use packaging materials that can endure your handling, storage and transport methods to protect the eggs from damage and deterioration. Also remember to use packaging materials that allow the consumers to see the eggs they are buying as customers often want to see the product they buy.

Clean odorless rice husks, wheat chaff or chopped straw may be used in packing eggs in a firm walled basket or crate. This packing method is appropriate for short distance transport.

Filler trays are another form of packaging for eggs. These are especially favorable because they allow eggs to be inspected without having to touch them. Filler trays may be made of molded wood pulp, sawn wood, cardboard or plastic. Plastic is commonly preferred as they can be washed and reused. Each tray usually carries three dozens (36 pieces) of eggs.

The third kind of egg packaging is the retail pack. This type contains two to a dozen eggs. This can be made of cardboard or plastic, and is often the packaging consumers see at the supermarket. This packaging type allows easy handling and inspection of eggs by the retailers and consumers.

Packaging should also contain labels which include information such as the grade, weight, size and expiration date of the eggs.

Storage
Egg storage for future consumption has been practiced for hundreds of years. There are simple steps in storing eggs to prevent deterioration, which includes simple storage in proper temperature and proper sanitation.

Eggs for storage must not be washed or wet and should be clean. Dirt and bacteria that enter the porous shell can cause it to decay. Use dry abrasives for scraping and brushing but take care not to weaken the shell and do not increase evaporation.

Shell oiling is a process that can greatly reduce losses by evaporation when eggs are in cold storage. Special odorless, colorless, low-viscosity mineral oils should be used. If eggs should withstand high temperatures, they should be oiled from four to six hours after lay. Eggs that are to be stored at a temperature of 0°C should be oiled 18 to 24 hours after lay. Eggs may be oiled by hand dipping wire baskets or by machine. Make sure that the temperature of the oil is at least ii° C above that of the eggs. Before the oil is reused it should be heated to a temperature of 116°C to prevent bacteria survival. The oil should then be filtered. The oil reservoirs should be cleaned properly. In terms of appearance oiled eggs differ from other eggs only in the slight shine left on the eggshells by the more viscous oils. Make sure that the packaging material, as well as the storage room should be clean and odorless. Also make sure that there is air circulation in the room.

In hot weather, eggs should be stored at low temperatures. Temperature should be maintained at 13°C or lower (usually between 10° and 13°C). The relative humidity should be between 80 and 85% at a cold storage temperature of -1° C. At cold storage temperatures of about 100 C the relative humidity should be between 75 and 8o percent. Where eggs have been oiled, less attention can be paid to the humidity level. The average storage life for eggs is between six and seven months.

Transport
Transport of eggs should not be delayed to minimize spoilage. This is one of the most important aspects of marketing arrangements. Generally, long distance transport should be made by using refrigerated trucks. Aside from monitoring temperature, eggs should also be protected from contamination during handling. Use packaging materials and transport containers that protect the eggs well from breakage. Egg trays and containers should also be stacked well and secured to protect them from excessive shaking in transit.

The business
Just as in any business, the layer farm should keep records to monitor its production costs and profits. Here are the costs to consider before starting an egg production enterprise:
1. Rearing - rearing brooders until they become layers
2. Housing - building or maintaining laying house and brooder house
3. Equipment - cost of miscellaneous items such as feeders, buckets, fans, etc.
4. Feed - total feed used during the year
5. Labor - labor costs for managing the farm
6. Vaccinations - medicines and veterinary expenses
7. Mortality - loss of birds due to disease, etc.
8. Various expenses - lighting, water, and other unexpected expenses

Marketing for eggs
There are two ways to market table eggs: using direct marketing, or marketing through middlemen or intermediaries. Marketing through middlemen is the more popular method and the more advisable one because this gives the farmers the opportunity to concentrate on the farm and production as compared to spending time on marketing and sales. Just remember, the most crucial part of marketing is meeting the demands and requirements of customers, and these usually rely on production, handling, storage, and transport of goods.

The four ways to conduct direct marketing are: sales from the farm, door-to-door sales, producers’ markets, and sales to local retail stores.

When a farmer directly sells from the farm, he gets the advantage of zero marketing costs, and consumers are assured of fresh eggs with almost no quality loss from transport. However, the farmer is not assured that the consumer will be willing to travel to his farm to avail of the eggs at regular market price as compared to farm-gate price.

Door-to-door selling affords the farmer to command a higher price for the eggs for the added service of bringing the eggs to the consumer’s doorstep. However, this does not assure sales until the farmer gets regular customers who order the eggs.

It is not advisable for the farmer to use producers’ markets alone to sell eggs because the main advantage of this market is that the farmer would have reduced the price of eggs greatly toward the end of the day, and the eggs would have already been exposed to the environment and temperature of the market.

Selling directly to local shops, institutions and businesses like restaurants, hotels, schools and hospitals would require a prior agreement and contract. The farmer should be able to meet the quantity and quality demand of the customer organization.

Marketing with middlemen
Marketing with the use of middlemen or intermediaries is most beneficial for the farmer because he will only need to make the deal with the middleman and will not need to spend time and money for the marketing of eggs. These middleman would have been experienced in marketing eggs and already have contacts to whom they can sell the eggs as well as knowledge of the egg market. Middlemen also pay for the eggs immediately and will take care of transporting the eggs from the farm.

Marketing costs and pricing
Costs to be considered during marketing are: packaging and storage, handling, transport, product losses, fees and taxes, and unexpected costs from unforeseen incidents such as derailment in delivery and such.

Pricing for eggs fluctuates during the year, depending on factors that affect production and eventually supply and demand. But farmers should always keep in mind to maintain a steady supply of eggs to maintain stable prices.

Profit can be calculated at the end of the year, when farmers can calculate total sales minus production and marketing costs.

Trade associations
Trade associations are helpful to producers because they are able to conduct dissemination of information and technology to its members. Trade associations also come up with the standard of quality farmers should produce. Overall, trade associations are beneficial to producers because they look out for the producers’ interest.

In the Philippines, there is the National Federation of Egg Producers of the Philippines or Egg Board which has organized two egg shows to date.

Part 1 –> Layers Production and Business Guide(Part 1)

Part 2 –> Layers Production and Business Guide (Part 2)