News in brief:

[Mustang Sally Farm]

Do it yourself formulations that I have collected over the years.One should always consult with your local vet or someone that holds an animal science degree first:


SCOURS

1 Quart Water
 2 tablespoons Corn Syrup
 ½ teaspoon Salt
 ¼ teaspoon Baking Soda

Bring 1 quart water to a boil. Stir in the corn syrup, salt, and baking soda. Cool. This homemade electrolyte drink should clear up scours in 2 to 3 days.


MAGIC
 
1 part Corn Oil (do not substitute with canola or vegetable oil)
 1 part Molasses
 1 part Corn Syrup

Use this when a goat needs quick energy or known as OFF as it will provide iron.




Another Milk Replacer Formula
 
1 egg, ¼ cup whipping cream
 1 cup non fat dry milk
 3 cups water: makes 30 oz.

If you want to double it, it is 2 eggs,
 1/3 cup whipping cream, 6 cups water, 2 cups nonfat dry milk.Taken from the internet.
 



REVIVE
 
1 bottle 50% Dextrose
 20cc B Complex-multi b vitamins
 5cc B12-cobalt
 2cc 500mg/ml Thiamin-b1
 This will make a little more than 500cc of Revive.

 If this is intended for pregnancy toxemia does, you need to add a bottle of Amino Acid solution (not the concentrate, it has too much potassium), and 2 grams of Ascorbic Acid-vitamin c.



 Antidote for Poisonous plant indegestion
 
Lard (substitute Vegetable Oil)
 1 raw Egg

Beat egg then add 8 ounces vegetable oil. Drench. This may have to be repeated 3 or 4 times depending on how much of the poisonous plant the goat has consumed. You have now flushed the rumen; now restart it with probios.






DIARRHEA
 
1 part Biosol
 2 parts Pepto Bismol

Mix together. For a small kid (under 15 lbs.) we give 3cc of this mixture. For medium sized kids (to 30 lbs.) we give 6cc. For large kids (50 lbs. to 80 lbs.) we give 9cc to 12cc. For adults we give 15cc to 21cc (depending on size of goat).






PINKEYE TREATMENT
 


1 part Dexamethazone
 1 part Gentamycin
 1 part Sterile Water

Mix in a clean spray bottle. Wash the eye area with Listerine and then spray it. May have to use for a couple of days.






PET-SAFE RAT POISON
 
1 Cup Flour
 1 Cup Sugar
 1 Cup Baking Soda

Mix together. Place in small bowls where you notice rat/mouse traffic.Safe to use around household pets. Use this one ourselves at the farm due to its pet friendly unless you are a rat or mouse.






URINARY CALCULI
 
Juice of one Lemon
 2 Tablespoons of Baking Soda
 1 Cup of Water
 

Drench the buck with 20 cc, 3 times a day the first day, 2 time a day for two days, then once a day until the urine is full and steady. Keep it up, every other day, then twice a week, if the animal is confortable and has a succesful flow.

Prevention: Ammonium Chloride added to your feed.
 



Feet problems? Have you tried Zinc Sulfate?

10 Gallon of water
 8 ounces (240 cc) of Soap
 8 pounds of Zinc Sulfate


 To mix, add soap (8 oz) into ten gallons of warm water. Add the Zinc Sulfate slowly to the warm soapy water, stirring the water, to get the Zinc Sulfate to dissolve in the water.

Store what is not being used in an airtight container such as bleach jug or liquid dishwashing soap bottle.

Pour the amount to be used in a container so it is as deep as the dew claws of the goats and have them stand in the solution for a minimum of 15 minutes. Change the bath with it gets dirty.
The solution is also good to use when trimming feet; you can just spray it directly on the hooves and dew claws to soak them.



Feet problems
Spiral Anaerobic Bacteria
Also Called Foot Warts
 
1 Cup Clorox
 3 Cups Water
 1 Package (102.4 gm) Terramycin Soluble Powder
 1 Oz. Benadine
 
Mix together then either spray the infected foot or dip the foot in the solution.
 

[Mustang Sally Farm]

It has been a very interesting year for us at Mustang Sally Farm.Our friends in N.American are not doubting us any longer as we have proven to them that we can in fact produce the 3 way cross meat goats in liveweight ranges from 20-30kg. within 6 months of age,simular to management practices for meat goats in the west.20kg in the west is considered below average but 30kg is considered average at 6 months for meat goat kids.Buck sire selection along with sound management practices allows us to begin the selling of our own goat meat product lines starting in January 2012.The addition of our new boer buckling will go on to breed with our 3 way cross does for F2 crosses, should allow us to reach 30- 40kg. at 6 months.We feel if we can produce our own protein concentrate of 21%,should realize even better liveweights over the standard concentrates now produced in country.The kids stay with their dams for 4 months (pre weaning) to give them the best chances for weight gain before entering the intensive feeding program for 60-62 days before slaughter.Kids at 1 week are allowed to interact with older kids which introduce them to forages and grasses which in turn helps with post weaning.Post weaning is very stressful for young kids and a time in their lives that weight loss is very real,the fewer surprises,the better the end results.We hope to produce nubian meat lines modeled after our success with the 3 way cross line in 2012.Slaughtering at 6 months will allow goat meat producers selling their own product lines more profits in their pockets as the kids are only feeding concentrates for shorter time frames over longer time frames.

This might only work for those who have their retail meat outlets or might be thinking of selling their own goat meat but probably has no real value for those who sell goats at liveweight prices.What works for one producer may not work as well for another.Goat meat production comes down to weight gains and time frames for market classes.

[Mustang Sally Farm]

MINERALS
Requirements of minerals have not been established definitively for goats at either maintenance or production levels. However, some classical studies in mineral metabolism have been conducted with goats as experimental subjects. These include studies by Fingerling (1911, 1913), which addressed calcium and phosphorus requirements of lactating goats. Hart et al. (1921, 1924, 1927) and Henderson and McGee (1926) reported data on calcium metabolism in goats, which led to the discovery of the role of vitamin D in calcium absorption and metabolism. Lintzel and Radeff (1931) reported important work on iron nutrition in goats. In general, these and more recent studies support assumptions that some mineral requirements in goats are similar to those in other ruminant species; therefore, mineral requirements listed in Table 1 rely for the time being on values recommended for sheep (NRC, 1975) and dairy cattle (NRC, 1978). The literature on mineral nutrition in goats was recently reviewed (Haenlein, 1980).

In addition to the elements in organic matter (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen), seven major and nine minor minerals are considered dietary essentials for livestock. The major minerals that must be fed in relatively large amounts are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, potassium, and sulfur. Minor or trace minerals, required in small amounts, include iron, iodine, copper, molybdenum, zinc, manganese, cobalt, selenium, and fluorine. Others which are possibly essential at extremely low levels are chromium, nickel, vanadium, silicon, tin, and arsenic. Most of these essential or possibly essential elements occur naturally in feedstuffs at levels that do not constitute problems in nutrition. However, situations often exist when one or more minerals, especially the major ones, are sufficiently low to reduce productivity. Trace minerals in particular can be present in toxic amounts. Proper balance of minerals and bioavailability from supplements are often more important than actual levels (Miller, 1981). Functions and practical implications of various important minerals are discussed individually.

Calcium
Calcium is a critical nutrient in ration formulation for all species of livestock. Although most of the calcium found in the body is in the skeleton, the element has numerous crucial functions in the soft tissues. A deficiency of calcium in young animals leads to retarded growth and development, and can predispose them to rickets. Because milk is high in calcium (Macy et al., 1953; Parkash and Jenness, 1968), rations for lactating goats need a higher calcium level. Fingerling (1911, 1913) found that if lactating goats did not receive the necessary amounts of calcium and phosphorus in their diets, they would draw from body stores of these elements without initially affecting milk yield or milk composition. If the calcium deficiency continued for weeks, the yield of milk decreased. At intakes of higher levels of calcium the goats replenished their body calcium stores and milk production increased. Changes in milk composition were not observed.

Certain minerals interact with calcium metabolism. Experiments using ligated intestinal loops in anaesthetized goats and radioactively labeled calcium injections (Gibbons et al., 1972) showed that intestinal calcium transport is enhanced by carbohydrates and by low luminal concentrations of sodium. Calcium absorption occurred principally in the duodenum, to a far lesser extent in the jejunum, and least in the lower ileum.

Under grazing conditions calcium is seldom a problem with either Angora or meat-type goats, but it can be very important for high-producing dairy goats. Low calcium diets lead to reduced milk production. Appropriate calcium levels in the diet are also important in the preven-

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tion of parturient paresis (milk fever). The calcium content of goats milk is reported to be in the range of 1.14 to 1.63 g/kg (Macy et al., 1953; Parkash and Jenness, 1968). A median value would be 1.38 g/kg, which is marginally higher than for dairy cattle. This value has been used in formulating the recommendations in Table 1. Suggested calcium supplements or sources include bone meal, dicalcium phosphate, ground limestone, and oyster shell. The percentage composition of these and other sources is found in Table 3.

Phosphorus
Phosphorus is required for both tissue and bone development. A deficiency will result in slowed growth, depraved appetite, and unthrifty appearance; it is often accompanied by low levels of phosphorus in the blood. Fingerling (1911) showed that the general conclusions about calcium-deficient diets also applied to phosphorus. Goats were able to sustain milk production from body reserves for several weeks of negative phosphorus balances. During phosphorus deficiencies, when intake was one-fifth of normal for two months, the production of milk declined 60 percent. Supplementing the diet with P2O5 and CaO to achieve daily levels of 6 g phosphorus and 14 g calcium raised milk yields by 10 percent in two weeks and by 15 to 25 percent in four weeks, while diets remained isocaloric and isonitrogenous. The phosphorus level in goats’ milk ranges from 0.84 to 1.22 g/kg (Macy et al., 1953; Parkash and Jenness, 1968).

The calcium-to-phosphorus ratio should not drop below 1.2:1 in diets for goats, even though no unanimity exists on the importance of the ratio. The significance of the calcium-to-phosphorus ratio in the genesis of urinary calculi is discussed later on.

A phosphorus deficiency in grazing goats is more likely than a calcium deficiency. It might be encountered with any type of goat grazing on phosphorus-deficient forages. Documented examples of phosphorus deficiency in grazing goats are rare, however. This can be explained by their varied habitats and tendency to browse plants that may be high in phosphorus. Formulation of rations to include adequate phosphorus will be more important with high-producing dairy goats when they are fed with harvested or formulated feedstuffs.

Sodium and Chlorine
Common salt (sodium chloride) is perhaps the mineral most commonly supplied to animals. They require both sodium and chlorine, but sodium is the mineral most likely to be lacking (Schellner, 1972). When provided free choice, goats may consume salt in excess of their requirements, but with no apparent ill effects. Animals that do not receive sufficient salt may show depraved appetites and consume soil or debris. If goats are not provided free choice, salt should be added to the feed. A recommended level would be 0.5 percent of the complete feed or proportionately higher levels in supplements.

Salt is important in several other ways. Placing it in less frequently grazed pastures may influence goats to move to those areas. Salt is also often incorporated at high levels to regulate free intake of nutritional supplements. Trace mineralized salt should not be used in this manner, however; it may lead to an oversupply of some trace elements. Goats in arid regions may have problems with the salt content of some water sources, which can reduce intake of water and feed.

Magnesium
Magnesium is required for many enzyme systems and for proper functioning of the nervous system. It is also closely associated with the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. Symptoms of magnesium deficiency are anorexia, excitability, and calcification of soft tissue. The most noted problem associated with hypomagnesemia is grass tetany, a malady that frequently occurs in animals grazing on lush green grass or winter cereals in pastures fertilized with nitrogen and potassium. Treatment consists of intravenous administration of calcium and magnesium in the gluconate form. Goats do have a marginal ability to compensate for low dietary magnesium by reducing the rate of its excretion (Razifard, 1971, 1972a,b). Both urinary excretion and milk flow, which contains 0.13 to 0.36 g magnesium per kg, are reduced when magnesium is low in the diet.

Potassium
Potassium, though required in relatively large amounts, is usually present in roughage-based diets to the extent that it does not constitute a problem. Marginal deficiencies result in reduced feed intake, retarded growth, and reduced milk production. More severe deficiencies cause emaciation and poor muscular tone. In growing sheep the potassium requirement is considered to be 0.5 percent of the diet, whereas with lactating dairy cattle the requirement is placed at 0.8 percent of the complete ration (Ward, 1966). These levels are also postulated as the requirements of growing and lactating goats, respectively. Ration values below these are infrequently encountered, and are usually restricted to high-concentrate diets, in which the major ingredient is low in potassium, or to diets of severely weathered or winter range forage. Potassium supplements may be in chloride, bicarbonate, or sulfate form.

Sulfur
Sulfur is a component of all body proteins and is particularly high in goat hair, which consists of a high proportion of the sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cystine. Marginal deficiencies cause poor animal performance, and more extreme cases result in excessive salivation, lacrimation, and alopecia. Studies with goats fed supplemental sulfur are rare, but it appears likely that deficiencies of sulfur may be more widespread than previously believed. A recent study by Wheeler et al. (1975)

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indicates potential shortages of sulfur in forage sorghums. Another study by Gartner and Hurwood (1976) indicates that tannic-acid-containing plants such as Acacia aneura may provide inadequate amounts of available sulfur. This is of particular concern with range goats, which liberally graze and browse tannin-containing plants. Recommendations are normally expressed in terms of a sulfur-to-nitrogen ratio of 1:10. However, this ratio may be misleading if either or both sulfur and nitrogen are unavailable because of the presence of complexing substances such as tannic acid. Sulfur requirements would then range from 0.16 to 0.32 percent of the diet for ration protein values of 10 to 20 percent. Sulfates, such as sodium sulfate and ammonium sulfate, are the most available forms of sulfur for ration formulation.

Common feedstuffs may contain adequate sulfur, but shortages can occur in forages grown on certain types of soils or in rations containing a high proportion of NPN as protein supplement (Varma and Sawhusey, 1970). The high-producing Angora goat may have an elevated sulfur requirement because of mohair growth, but this possibility needs to be investigated. It has been shown that sulfur-containing amino acids, administered postruminally, stimulate fiber production (Reis and Schinkel, 1964). Although mechanisms exist, the required technology has not reached the stage of practical application.

Iron
Iron is a component of blood hemoglobin that is required for oxygen transport. It is also required for some enzyme systems. Although iron deficiency seldom occurs in mature grazing animals, it may occur in young goat kids because of their minimal body stores of iron at birth and the low iron content of milk (Jenness, 1980). The work of Lintzel and Radeff (1931) suggests that this may be more true with goats than with cattle. If iron deficiencies are observed and it is desired to continue the kids on a milk diet, injections of iron-dextran (150 mg) at two-to-three-week intervals are recommended. In a recent study (Hamada et al., 1970) acceptable tissue color was observed in animals fed a diet containing 0.03 percent ferrous iron. Thus, this value might be taken as a minimum. Ferrous sulfate and ferric citrate are more available than other sources such as ferric oxide and are recommended for ration formulation. The literature is too sparse, however, to state definite feeding requirements for iron.

Iodine
Iodine is necessary for the formation of thyroxine. In states of iodine deficiency the thyroid gland becomes enlarged, a condition called goiter (Honeker, 1949). It is most frequently observed in the young at birth, especially in weak or dead kids. Iodine-deficient areas are widespread in the world, including parts of the United States. Deficiencies are readily corrected by feeding iodized salt (Sutphin et al., 1971). However, iodized salts should not be force-fed (as when salt is used as a feed limiter) because this action could lead to excessive intakes of iodine.

Goats appear to be somewhat unusual with respect to iodine metabolism (Lengemann, 1970, 1979), but no good basis for unique recommendations exists so far.

Copper and Molybdenum
Copper and molybdenum are interrelated in animal metabolism and should be considered together (Hennig et al., 1974). Levels of both can be too low or too high or the level of one can be low and the other too high. The most common problem occurs when a normal or low level of copper is accompanied by a high level of molybdenum. In this case copper is excreted and a deficiency occurs. This condition can be corrected with copper therapy.

Few studies on copper and molybdenum have included goats (NRC, 1980). It appears that sheep are sensitive to copper toxicity and resistant to molybdenosis, but it is not known whether this is also the case with goats.

Zinc
Zinc deficiency symptoms include parakeratosis, stiffness, of joints, excessive salivation, swelling of the feet and horny overgrowth, small testicles, and low libido (Neathery et al., 1973). Reduced feed intake and weight loss also occurs with zinc-deficient diets. Zinc must be supplied continuously because little is stored in the body in readily available form (NRC, 1979). Minimum daily requirements for goats have not been established. Young males have developed deficiencies at levels of 4 ppm (Neathery et al., 1973); adult females developed signs on 6–7 ppm when they were lactating. There is also some evidence that males require more zinc than do females (Groppel and Hennig, 1971; Schellner, 1972). Direct and indirect evidence indicates minimum requirements of 10 ppm. Levels of 1000 ppm may be toxic.

Manganese
Manganese is an essential mineral in diets for goats (Groppel, 1969; Anke et al., 1972, 1973a,b,c; Hennig et al., 1972; Schellner, 1972). Deficiency signs include reluctance to walk, deformity of the forelegs, and reduced reproductive efficiency. So far, data are inadequate to suggest optimum levels. Deficiency signs have developed on 5.5 ppm, but not on 90 ppm in the diet (Anke et al., 1973b).

Other Minerals
Fluorine and selenium can be encountered at either deficient or toxic levels in natural diets. Fluorine deficiency appears to be rare; toxic levels result largely from industrial pollution. With sheep, acute fluorine toxicity occurs at levels above 200 ppm (NRC, 1975). Selenium toxicity occurs in sheep from prolonged consumption of plants containing over 3 ppm. The classical deficiency of selenium is white muscle disease (Hebert and Cowan, 1971),

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but milder deficiencies result in reduced performance, especially reproductive efficiency. Selenium supplements may be added to salt supplementation or provided through injections.

Cobalt is a component of vitamin B12. Deficiency signs include loss of appetite, emaciation, weakness, anemia, and decreased production. In sheep an intake of 0.1 ppm is considered adequate. It is assumed that the same would apply to goats. Cobalt sulfate or cobalt chloride added at the rate of 12 g per 100 kg of salt should provide an adequate intake, but this would be indicated only in situations in which cobalt has been shown to provide a response.

A few additional references on specific mineral studies with goats can be found in the appended bibliography.

VITAMINS
Vitamins are a group of compounds essential for normal body processes. Typical range or pasture diets of goats should contain adequate levels of vitamins or vitamin precursors to maintain normal health of the animal. Pen-fed animals, goats held on restricted diets, and high-producing animals may need a supplemental vitamin supply (Honeker, 1949). Recommendations in Table 1 for vitamin requirements of goats rely on similar values for sheep (NRC, 1975) and dairy cattle (NRC, 1978) until more specific experimental evidence for goats becomes available.

Vitamin A
Vitamin A is involved in many areas of body metabolism, and as a result deficiency signs are varied. Experimental evidences of vitamin A deficiencies include keratinization of the epithelia of the respiratory, alimentary, reproductive, and urinary tracts, and of the eye. Signs include multiple infections, poor bone development, birth of abnormal offspring, and vision impairment Night blindness, the inability to see under poorly lighted conditions, is the classic deficiency sign. Experimentally produced signs of a vitamin A deficiency in goats include: loss of appetitie, loss of weight, unthrifty appearance, night blindness, and a thick nasal discharge (Schmidt, 1941).

Vitamin A is not contained in forages, but its precursors are common in plants and are usually present in proportion to plant pigments. However, not all plant pigments give rise to equal vitamin A activity. Beta-carotene is the standard form of provitamin A. One mg of beta-carotene in the diet is equivalent to approximately 400 IU of vitamin A. Other pigments, xanthophylls for example, are less active.

Vitamin A is stored in the liver and fat of animals during times when intake exceeds requirements. During periods of low carotene supplies in the diet, this stored vitamin A can be mobilized and utilized without signs of a vitamin A deficiency. Eveleth et al. (1949) reported that a vitamin A deficiency in sheep is unlikely if green feed is available during one season of the year. Schmidt (1941) found the tolerance of adult sheep and Angora goats to low carotene diets to be similar. However, Angora kids were found to be more tolerant than lambs. Goats that have had access to good quality green feed can probably be held on a low carotene diet for a minimum of three months without showing signs of a vitamin A deficiency.

Typical goat diets contain adequate carotene to prevent vitamin A deficiency. The tendency of the goat to search out palatable green plant parts ensures it an advantage over other ruminant species. However, goats that are forced to consume more conventional cattle or sheep diets because of the unavailability of browse would not have an advantage (Davis, 1942; Caldas, 1961). Vitamin A deficiency in goats in the tropics would be rare except under such circumstances.

Old weathered hays are poor sources of carotene, which is readily oxidized. Green leafy hays are good sources, and dehydrated legume hays, especially pelleted, are the best natural sources. Synthetic vitamin A is readily available in feed additive and injectable forms from commercial suppliers. The newer formulations are relatively stable, but old premixes and injectables should not be used.

Vitamin D
Vitamin D is essential for the absorption and metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. In its absence, or at low levels, normal bone development is impaired. Soft, irregular shaped leg and rib bones resulting from a vitamin D deficiency are signs of “rickets.” Thus, vitamin D has been referred to as the antirachitic factor. A form of rickets can also be seen in the newborn of an adult female deficient during pregnancy. Otherwise, deficiencies in adult animals are considered rare.

Vitamin D is available to animals both through the diet and as a result of exposure to sunlight. Ultraviolet radiation from sunlight acts on ergosterol, a plant sterol, and on 7-dehydrocholesterol, a sterol of animal origin, to produce compounds having antirachitic activity (vitamin D2 and D3, respectively). Thus, sun-cured hays are excellent sources of vitamin D. Animals exposed to sunlight can obtain some of their requirement directly from irradiation of 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin. DeLuca (1974) discovered that activation of vitamin D3 occurs in the liver and kidney of animals.

Vitamin D deficiency is unlikely under normal grazing conditions, although a form of osteodystrophia has been produced experimentally in goats. Vitamin D should be supplied to growing animals that are denied sunlight over extended periods because of cloud cover or confinement to housing.

Vitamin E
Vitamin E deficiency in sheep is commonly associated with white muscle disease, also called stiff lamb disease. This malady is seen in young nursing lambs and will improve with vitamin E therapy (Muth et al., 1958). An

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associated selenium deficiency will intensify the disease. Vitamin E is alleged to improve reproductive efficiency, but dietary supplementation experiments have not produced consistent results.

Evidence of spontaneous vitamin E deficiency signs in goats is lacking. It is suggested that the probability of lowered productivity in goats as a result of a vitamin E deficiency is remote. However, vitamin E transferred to the milk is considered important because of the antioxidant properties that aid in milk storage.

Vitamin K
Vitamin K, the blood clotting vitamin, is plentiful in a variety of feedstuffs and, in addition, is readily synthesized in the rumen. A deficiency is unlikely.

B Vitamin Complex
The B vitamins are not considered dietetically essential in adult goats because they are normally synthesized by microorganisms in the rumen. Only vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is likely to be deficient in animals having a functional rumen. Cobalt is required for synthesis of vitamin B12 and if absent or at extremely low levels in the diet of goats, a vitamin B12 deficiency will occur. The B vitamins should be included in diets of very young kids nursing their dams, animals with poorly functioning rumens, sick animals, and those with radically changed diets.

Vitamin C
Vitamin C is synthesized in the body tissues in adequate quantities to satisfy requirements and under normal circumstances need not be added to diets of goats.

WATER
Water is obviously important for goats, and the amount required depends on that needed for the maintenance of normal water balance and to provide for satisfactory levels of production. The normal body water content of the goat varies with age, amount of fat in the body, and environmental temperatures. It would be expected to exceed 60 percent of the body weight and 75 percent of the nonbony tissues. Shkolnik et al. (1980) have shown that some goats, such as the black Bedouin of the Negev and Sinai deserts, have the capacity to store as much as 76 percent of their body weight. Water requirements may be met by free water consumption, but other important sources include water contained in the feed ingested and metabolic water resulting from oxidation of energy sources. Major water losses include those from urine, lactation, evaporation, and perspiration.

A safe general recommendation is to provide goats with all the clean water that they will drink (ad libitum intake). Extremes in water temperature will increase energy requirements. Taste factors will also affect normal water intake (Goatcher and Church, 1970). Although the above observations are logical, it should be remembered that a high proportion of the world’s goat population lives in areas where water requirements are not easily met. The uniqueness of goats in meeting their water requirements deserves further study. The example of the black Bedouin goat suggests that other genotypes may differ in their ability to meet water requirements. Regardless of breed, water intake must exceed milk production. In a study reported by Bergmann (1932), 3.5 kg of water was consumed for each kilogram of milk produced by dairy goats under temperate conditions. French recommendations are 145.6 g water per Wkg0.75 for maintenance and 1.43 kg water per kilogram of milk as a production requirement (Morand-Fehr and Sauvant, 1978). In the humid tropics Devendra (1967) found that penned indigenous meat goats had a mean daily free water intake of 680 g, of which 80 percent was consumed during the day.

Goats are often more sensitive and reluctant than other species to drink from foul-tasting water sources. If they are forced to drink poor quality water, the result may be infection or undesirable mineral intake. Also, in many parts of the world goats drink from impounded water, and entrapment (bogging in mud) can be a real hazard, especially with Angoras.

Goats are among the most efficient domestic animals in the use of water, approaching the camel in the low rate of water turnover per unit of body weight (Maloiy and Taylor, 1971; Macfarlane and Howard, 1972). Goats appear to be less subject to high temperature stress than other species of domestic livestock such as wooled sheep or many breeds of cattle and require less water evaporation to control body temperature. They also have the ability to conserve water by reducing losses in urine and feces. In many environments the water intake through forage may be high relative to other species because of their ability or willingness to browse. The result is that goats are less dependent on free water sources than other domestic species, but do not equal certain wild animal species in this respect.

Factors affecting the free water intake of goats are lactation level, environmental temperature, water content of forage consumed, amount of exercise, and salt and mineral content of the diet. Therefore, the daily range of free water intake may be from zero to several liters. When feeding on dry forages and when water is lacking, the efficiency of reproduction will suffer (Brown and Lynch, 1972; Lynch et al., 1972). Suboptimum water intake will result initially in reduced feed intake, then reduced performance and gradual starvation. Acute problems result when goats are unable to maintain water balance or control body temperature.

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NUTRITION-RELATED METABOLIC DISORDERS
ABORTION
The goat is more susceptible to abortion than other species of domestic livestock. Most of the work relating to abortion in goats has been with the Angora (Van Heerden, 1963; Van Rensburg, 1971; Shelton and Groff, 1974), in which the problem is more severe. Infectious diseases such as brucellosis are also capable of causing abortion in goats (Alton, 1973). The fact that the goat is a corpus-luteum-dependent species predisposes the animal to abort whenever there is an interference with a functional corpus luteum (Wentzel et al., 1975). A low level of abortion is common with the Angora under normal production conditions, but catastrophic losses sometimes occur. Most abortions occur in response to stress between 90 and 110 days of gestation. Undernutrition during the critical stage of rapid fetal development and competition for nutrients between fetal and maternal organisms appear to be one explanation. The incidence of abortion is reduced in flocks in which replacement does are fed for proper size and development prior to the first breeding season and during gestation (Shelton and Stewart, 1973).

A series of studies from South Africa appears to provide a physiological explanation for the type of abortion observed in that country with the Angora. Parturition, either at or prior to term, is normally initiated by elevated corticosteroids of fetal or maternal origin (Wentzel and Roelofse, 1975). Two types of abortion have been identified in the Angora. One is known as stress abortion, which is triggered by low maternal blood glucose (Wentzel et al., 1976). This type is normally induced by poor nutritional condition of the doe (Wentzel et al., 1974), but other stress factors are also involved. Stress abortion is identified by the expulsion of a live or fresh fetus. Low maternal glucose appears to trigger hyperactivity of the fetal adrenal. The cause of abortion in the period 90–110 days of pregnancy is apparently explained by the fetal adrenal gland’s producing elevated levels of estrogen precursors (Wentzel et al., 1976), and estrogens are known to be potent abortifacients (Wentzel et al., 1975). After 110 days the fetal adrenal is more mature and produces corticosteroids, which are slower acting or less potent abortifacients. A second type of abortion is that by the habitual aborter. These goats can be identified by a history of abortion, and by the expulsion of a dead edematous or autolyzed fetus. This type of abortion apparently results from maternal hyperadrenalism. Both types of abortion may be triggered by undernutrition resulting in low blood glucose. Initial or stress abortions can be almost totally prevented by adequate nutrition and the elimination of stress.

ENTEROTOXEMIA
It has been said with reason that it is impossible to manage a herd of good dairy goats without experiencing some incidence of enterotoxemia, also known as toxic indigestion or overeating disease (Guss, 1977). Diarrhea, depression, lack of coordination, digestive upsets, coma, and death may be observed after excessive feeding on the part of both baby kids and mature animals. Excessive feeding may occur after sudden changes in feeds; with access to palatable, readily fermentable feeds relished by hungry goats; and under conditions of calcium insufficiency and acidosis. Enterotoxemia is a toxic reaction to Clostridium perfringens type C or D, against which antitoxins and vaccination programs with toxoid or bacterins are effective. However, the best prevention in stable-fed goats is frequent feeding of milk, grain, and forage in small amounts. Large meals given once a day should be avoided. Changes of concentrates and forages in the ration should be introduced gradually over several days, especially when the protein or energy content of the diet is increased. When urea or other nonprotein nitrogen is to be part of the diet, then the gradual adaptation should take at least three weeks.

Acute indigestion with a rumen pH of less than 4.8 indicates lactic acidosis. It can follow high levels of grain feeding in early lactation and may lead to the secondary complication of enterotoxemia. Recent research with sheep and cattle on the sensitivity of Streptococcus bovis,

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the initiator of acute acidosis, to various antibiotics gives hope that powerful aids in the prevention of enterotoxemia may be available for goats (Muir et al., 1981).

KETOSIS
Ketosis is a metabolic disorder defined by increased levels of ketone bodies (acetone, betahydroxybutyric acid, and acetoacetic acid) in blood, milk, and urine, and is associated with elevated blood plasma nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), which are precursors of ketone bodies. Lactation ketosis is observed primarily in high-producing dairy cows and to a lesser extent in dairy goats (Leach, 1971; Mackenzie, 1973; Schultz, 1974; Guss, 1977). Late-pregnancy ketosis is encountered in sheep and goats carrying multiple fetuses. Goats appear to be more resistant than cows or ewes to ketosis. Treatment is similar to that for cows: intravenous glucose, glucocorticoid steroids, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) injections, oral drenching with sodium propionate, propylene glycol or chloral hydrate.

Experimentally, phlorizin injections in goats have simulated ketosis by causing glucosuria, hypoglycemia, ketonemia, and blood plasma NEFA level increases (Menahan, 1966). Forcing goats to go without food also results in increases of blood NEFA levels, especially in late pregnancy or during lactation. However, the fat depot is the ultimate source of ketosis, and dairy goats appear to lack the fat reserves of cows and other animals, which might explain why ketosis is unusual in goats.

Increased ketogenesis has been produced by infusion of butyric acid into the rumen of goats with phlorizin-induced hypoglycemia; the condition was corrected by intravenous injections of glucose or propionate, or intraruminal administration of propionate (Menahan, 1966). Most ketogenesis was produced, however, from butyric acid infusion into the rumen in late pregnancy and when the goats were forced to fast.

Diabetes accompanied by elevated blood NEFA levels has also been simulated in goats by the administration of intravenous alloxan (Menahan, 1966). A glucose drain during late multiple pregnancy and heavy lactation is the triggering stimulus to lipolysis and ketogenesis. A feedback effect from ketonemia in the presence of insulin appears to prevent further increases of fat mobilization and may be important to the survival of the animal.

Increased plasma NEFA levels were a more sensitive indicator of undernutrition in goats than blood ketones or blood glucose levels (Radloff, 1964). Growth hormone, epinephrine, glucocorticoid steroids, and ACTH have direct effects on and relationships to blood ketone levels in goats.

PARTURIENT PARESIS (MILK FEVER)
The incidence of paralysis-type conditions of this metabolic hypocalcemic disorder differs among genetic groups of dairy cattle, but is also reported for other species, including goats (Littledike, 1974; Guss, 1977). However, it is not observed as frequently in goats as in cows. Signs and treatments are similar to those for cows. Prevention has been tried with different contents of calcium in the diet during the dry period, and with hormone treatment and vitamin D therapy, but no generally accepted management practice has evolved. Parturient paresis has been related to greatly increased mammary blood flow immediately after parturition (Reynolds, 1970).

The relationship of the kinetics of calcium pool size and calcium turnover rate to dietary phosphorus levels were studied and discussed by Twardock et al. (1970) and Anderson et al. (1970). It was noted that different dietary regimes of goats, including changed calcium-to-phosphorus ratios, had significant effects on the size and biological half-life of the readily exchangeable calcium pool. It was suggested that the response time of the parathyroid hormone and the removal of calcium from the so-called nonexchangeable bone pool was too slow for the immediate calcium needs of parturition and lactation onset in goats; and when the readily exchangeable calcium pool was inadequate to meet these needs, then parturient paresis resulted. A low or high calcium diet over time may be a predisposing factor for a reduced readily exchangeable calcium pool in goats. Dietary phosphorus levels influence the effects of such diets, and also the level of intestinal calcium absorption and available calcium in goats.

POSTHITIS
Posthitis, also known as sheathrot or pizzlerot, has been reported in male goats (Shelton and Livingston, 1975). This problem has been studied extensively in Merino wethers in Australia (Osborne and Widdows, 1961; McMillan and Southcott, 1973). The causative agents are thought to be a high protein ration in combination with the presence of a urea-hydrolyzing organism such as Corynebacterium renale (McMillan and Southcott, 1973; Barajas and Biberstein, 1974; Shelton and Livingston, 1975). The problem appears to be aggravated by confinement to areas where irritation or infection are more likely to occur. The problem is not likely to be a serious one with goats, except with mature Angora wethers kept for hair production. The problem may also occur with individual breeding bucks kept in confinement.

TOXIC PLANTS
The problem of poisonous plants is of great importance to owners of much of the world’s goat population. It is not known, nor can it be inferred, that goats are either more or less susceptible to toxic plants than other animal species. However, their grazing habits and the environment under which many of them are kept place them in wider contact with toxic plants. Many goats are found in arid areas, and

[Mustang Sally Farm]

are noted for eating a variety of plants under these conditions. Many native forage species found under arid conditions have natural protective mechanisms, including toxic principals that retard evaporation and protect against livestock. Goats are thought to be less sensitive than cattle to the toxic effects of tannic acid. Goats can live for extended periods of time on oak species with high tannic acid, whereas cattle are very susceptible to this material (Dollahite, 1961). Goats are also not bothered by bitter-weed (Hymenoxys odorata), which causes severe losses with sheep in some areas (Hardy et al. 1931). And goats have been used at times to reduce the availability of toxic plants to other animal species (Dollahite, 1972). Some references to toxic plants and their effects include Sperry et al. (1964), Kingsbury (1964), Lindahl (1972), and Keeler et al. (1978).

UREA TOXICITY
Urea is an important natural compound in the physiological processes of goats, but can be highly toxic if consumed in excess. Although most of the urea that is formed in the liver is excreted through the kidney, a portion passes into the rumen where it is hydrolyzed to ammonia and used by rumen microorganisms for protein synthesis (Vercoe, 1969; Hume et al., 1970). Therefore, urea is frequently included in ruminant diets to partially replace protein ingredients. Producers and feed formulators must exercise caution when feeding goats urea, since excessive amounts can result in a buildup of ammonia to toxic levels in the bloodstream (Morris and Payne, 1970; Kromann et al., 1971). It is recommended that urea supply no more than one-third of the total crude protein in forage or roughage-type diets and not more than one-half in the concentrate portion of the diet. Also, an adaptation period of at least three weeks is required for the animal to utilize urea efficiently. It is generally believed that 44 g/100 kg body weight at a single feeding will result in acute toxicity. Producers should assure that daily consumption levels at that rate do not occur.

UROLITHIASIS
Goats are known to be susceptible to urolithiasis (urinary calculi), and serious losses can occur when valuable breeding males are placed on calculogenic rations (Sato and Omori, 1977). It is not known whether they are more susceptible or less susceptible than other ruminant species or whether the predisposing factors are different. For the purpose of this discussion it will be assumed that goats do not differ from cattle or sheep with respect to calculus formation. Nutritional imbalances are generally considered the primary cause of stone formation, but infection has been identified as a predisposing factor with some species (Griffith et al., 1975). The problem is largely restricted to the male because his urinary tract is much more susceptible to blockage, and it is seen infrequently in grazing goats. The problem is important only in confined animals, which represent a small portion of the world’s goat population but include some of the more valuable stud bucks. The chemistry of calculus formation is complex and is not completely understood. One of the more important predisposing factors is a high phosphorus content in the diet, or a content high relative to calcium or potassium content (Rabbins et al., 1965; Hoar et al., 1970). In dry lot rations the potassium levels should be maintained at an adequate level and the calcium-to-phosphorus ratio should be maintained at 1.5:1 or greater. Additional protection may be obtained through the use of ration additives such as ammonium chloride (Crookshank, 1970) or potassium chloride (Shelton and Ellis, 1965; Crookshank, 1966), which will acidify the urine. If infection plays a part in calculus formation, it may be through its effect on pH of the urine. Using medication to combat infection with a view to preventing calculus formation is not generally recommended, but such an action may be a secondary benefit of using antibiotics in the ration for other reasons.

[Mustang Sally Farm]

During a conversation with our counterpart in Texas last year, the topic on buck health came up and one thing we found interesting was the discussion on buck health and security.Seems goats like humans can also contract and pass on STDs,sexual transmitted diseases.Depends on how many does a single buck mates with and if this buck or other bucks are allowed to breed with goats outside your own farm.Abortion Storms,meaning that in your herd,you notice 2 does or more abort within weeks of each other and was serviced by the same buck.In this case,the buck should become suspect and treated along with all your other does in your herd.Systemic shots for 5 days of any 200mg. tetracycline given subq. in the proper dose for very 100 pounds of body weight,both the bucks and does.As a preventative measure we now inject our bucks during the off breeding season for this very reason.Preventation is always better than having to deal with something very nasty happening to your goats in the first place.

Speaking of injections,one must take great caution when injecting IM,should you hit the main nerve in the rump,lucky if the goat only limps around for a few days.Worse case,you can cripple your goat for life or send it into shock and it dies.

When dealing with any livestocks,preventation is always the best cure.

[Mustang Sally Farm]

Figures this week released from the USDA is claiming higher worldwide inventories of wheat and corn.Some of the Russian states are sitting on stockpiles of surplus wheat and India has surplus wheat for export while China is holding her own in domestic corn production.All this surplus wheat and corn might mean a break in feed costs for the livestock producer but if the world price of oil should rise then the cost of transportation will also rise along with the cost of fertilizer.News like this is always a good news,bad news for the producer and lets hope the prices for our livestocks will not decline, placing even more hardships on livestock producers and our products worldwide.Another catch 22 for the year, 2012.

[Mustang Sally Farm]

The ESMGPA is not a "marketing organization." However, its membership includes numerous individuals with many years of successful marketing experience. We have collected here a number of "marketing models" that can be replicated by ESMGPA members in the Region, or on some more local scale.

Start with a working definition. Marketing: the process of locating, delivering to, and receiving payment from a buyer for a product that you have for sale. For the goat raiser, the "product" will be a live goat; even though you might deliver it as a carcass or cuts of meat. In fact, there are three main "streams" in the meat goat marketing world: (1) the "slaughter stream," and (2) "show animal" stream, and (3) the "breeding stock" stream. Producers are quite likely to market animals through all three streams.

The "Slaughter Stream"

In the "slaughter stream," market kids" is a term much used. These are castrated buck kids (wethers), intact bucklings, or doelings. They may be born any time during the year and are sold after weaning and reaching a "market weight" of 45 pounds or higher. Uncastrated buck kids up to the age of 12 months can be included in this market. Doe kids can be marketed the same way, of course; but they may be more profitably marketed as "breeding stock." Most commercial producers are selling these "market kids."

There has been historically an "Easter Kid" market in New York State. These are January or February born kids. still suckling , in the 20-45 pound range, and sold shortly before the Roman, Orthodox Greek and Russian Easters. Buyers traditionally pay a premium price for these lightweight kids.

As individuals in your herd age, have accidents, diseases , or "poor genetics' become obvious; the raiser should be "culling" unprofitable older animals. There is a market for these bucks and does over one year of  age, too.

Direct sales from the farm to the consumer can be handled in several ways. The consumer can buy the animal from you and take it home to slaughter and butcher. Or, you may provide the basic facilities for slaughter by the owner on your farm. You might accommodate the buyer by taking the animal they have purchased to a slaughter house of your mutual choice. At that point they will become responsible for paying the slaughter and cutting charges and picking up the meat from the slaughterhouse.

If you, the raiser, want to sell goat meat on the wholesale or retail basis, you will have to get the slaughtering and butchering done at a slaughter house that offers USDA meat inspection. The costs of slaughter, cutting, and wrapping will have to be built into your wholesale or retail selling price. It is difficult to market fresh goat meat unless you are selling through an outlet where there is high demand and rapid turnover. many wholesalers and retailers market frozen goat meat.

You may utilize a "middle-man" of some sort. The "middle-man" might be a licensed dealer, a company, or a cooperative, that collets animals from many sources and holds them for resale alive or slaughtered. These middle-men take your live animal and move it along to the consumer. Some dealers are located geographically near large populations of goat meat buyers. These are ethnic populations who may buy goat meat the year around, but are particularly interested in buying at certain identifiable religious holiday seasons. Some dealers will pick up live animals at your farm (planning a route to include you and other nearby raisers). many dealers will pay a premium if you bring your live animals to them. They then sell directly to consumers, or hold the animals for buyers who come from live animal markets in the city or to buyers who represent a slaughterhouse which sells to butchers in the urban areas. Some meat goat producers who live considerable distances from the urban centers have formed marketing pools. Market ready animals are collected at some central local point and then transported to a buyer in the city or a buyer may bring trucking out to pick up the animals. Some raisers have taken this a step further and formed more permanent marketing coops. In some cases the animals are slaughtered locally and their carcasses shipped to contracted restaurants or butcher shops on a regular basis and sometimes there are special shipments at ethnic holiday times.

You can take animals to area livestock auction houses. To be profitable to you, your animals need to be put up for auction on a day when there are buyers of goats present in competitive numbers. Such ad day is not always easy to identify beforehand. Local groups of raiser have negotiated with specific auction houses to have special goat sale days. On those days goat buyers are encouraged to attend and goats may be grouped by age and sold by grades. Of course you will have to provide transpiration for you animals to the auction center.

The "Show Animal" Stream

Many goat raisers enjoy the excitement, camaraderie, and competition of the "show circuit." Most youth programs, such as the 4-H goat program, involve multiple aspects of goat raising, including fitting and showing. Besides showing opportunities at local fairs and the NYS Fair, ESMGPA members participate in Regional shows, state shows, and broad regional shows. Some of these shows are sanctioned by organizations, such as the American Meat Goat Association: or by specific breed associations like the American Boer Goat Association and the International Boer Goat Association. These shows usually have open classes for market wethers as well as classes for purebred stock. Goat raisers producing high quality goats at all levels may find buyers who wish to show these animals. "Showring" is also good way to advertise your animals and your goat raising operation.

The "Breeding Stock" Stream

Whether you are raising purebred animals, registered high percentage animals, or have a quality meat goat herd; there is a market for your animals as breeding stock. Mature does and doelings are currently in high demand as raisers expand their herd and new goat raising operations get underway. There is also a regular demand for quality  full blood bucks and high % bucks and bucklings of good size, conformation, and promise. you can advertise here on this ESMGPA website. You can enroll and advertise on the Cornell University Sheep and Goat Marketing website, SRMarketing. you can advertise in farm publications such as "country Folk" (a free subscription with your membership in ESMGPA). The Farm Bureau's publication; "Gassroots," carries free ads for members. Breed journals will be happy to place an ad for you. Exhibiting at shows will give you and your animals exposure to other goat producers and will establish beneficial word-of-mouth advertising. Dealers who recognize that you are producing quality animals for slaughter or breeding may "spread the word" for you. Where there are 4-H Goat Programs occurring, market wethers and breeding does for participating youth are in demand. Purebred raisers may have annual sales or occasional "Productions Sales" that might accept animals from you. Generally speaking, more money can be made by selling animals as breeding stock than by sending them to the meat market.

Conclusion

A number of factors contribute to successful marketing. Some are with the procurer's control and some are not. Geographic location in relation ship to buyers (be they consumers or distributors) is important. Your ability to develop good working relationships with other producers, buyers and consumers will contribute to a profitable operation. Of course, the quality of your product will affect how much it is desired by both middle-men and the ultimate consumer. Consult with experienced raisers who have operations similar to what you are planning. but, also think "out of the box" and be creative.

You will want to explore "marketing" in greater depth than this summary provides. Look over the attached list of internet "links," think through which marketing models might work for you, and continue your research along those lines.

[Mustang Sally Farm]

Feedlot Performance and Carcass Characteristics of
                                        Tennessee Meat Goats and Boer Cross Wethers

By: Dr. Frank Pinkerton, Dr. Lou Nuti, and Dr. Ken McMillin

Introduction

The information presented herein resulted from a 1997 trial conducted at Prairie View A&M University by Dr. Lou Nuti to make an early and, admittedly, exploratory evaluation of the recently introduced Boer goat as a terminal sire on dairy, Spanish and Tennessee Meat Goats (TMG). Although the small numbers and variable ages and sizes of animals available for purchase at that time made the data ineligible for publication in refereed journals, we feel current goat producers might glean useful information from the findings, particularly in light of present industry interest in “finishing” Boer crossbreds. Too, a number of dairy goat owners are now using Boer sires to try to improve carcass merit of surplus kids sold for meat.

Research Procedure

The 50 wethers used in this trial were purchased from area goat producers and transported to Prairie View in late June, 1997. They were held for seven days of pre-trial observation and pre-conditioning (de-worming, confinement handling and exposure to new pelleted feed). The trial began June 30 with 5 breed groups: TMG, Boer x Spanish, Boer x Nubian/TMG, Boer x Nubian/Alpine and Boer x Nubian. Each breed group was penned separately and fed as groups. Therefore, it was impossible to obtain individual feed intakes and, accordingly, no individual feed conversion efficiencies. Only individual daily rates of gain could be determined. Initially, there were ten animals per breed group, but, early on, one TMG and two Boer x Spanish wethers died (no reason found). Group feed intakes in those pens were then adjusted to compensate for the smaller numbers.

The sole diet fed was a commercial, pelleted ‘complete feed’ with a tag guarantee of 16% crude protein, 1.5% fat (min.), 19% crude fiber, .8-.9% calcium, .32% Phosphorus, 1.0-1.25% salt, 10ppm-20ppmcopper plus vitamins A (15,000I.U./lb) and E (3000I.U./lb). It also had Decoquinate (Decox), 27.2 grams/ton, to suppress coccidiosis. The tag indicated a composition of grains, protein feeds, molasses, and 20% roughage products (unidentified). This figure, taken with the 19% fiber guarantee, suggests the total digestible nutrient (TDN) content of this feed mixture was about 72%, as-fed basis. (For comparison, corn is 80%, oats are 70% and good alfalfa hay is about 52% TDN.) In any case, the feed composition and expected feed intake were conducive to rapid growth rate when fed ad lib (all they wanted, all the time).

At the conclusion of the 120 day trial, all animals were weighed, then held off feed for 24 hours and thereafter weighed again just prior to slaughter. They were stunned, jugular-cut and hung for bleeding, skinning and removal of viscera. Head, shanks, liver, heart and kidneys- with- fat were removed prior to washing and weighing the hot carcass. After chilling for 24 hours at 34F, the carcasses were weighed and fabricated into selected retail cuts which were weighed to calculate yields.

Results and Discussion

We have tabulated the performance and carcass data under breed-group headings and in three separate tables for reader convenience.



Readers should first remember that there were, essentially three different age and weight groups in the trial. These differences make precise comparisons of performance data impossible. However, the figures do reflect certain principles of animal growth with which producers should be acquainted. For example, pre-weaning growth rates are relatively low but become ever larger as the kid ages. After weaning, increasing average daily gain (adg) at first stabilizes around puberty (at .3 to .4 lb) and thereafter decreases with increasing age, particularly so as the animal approaches maturity. However, post-weaning kids, if fed ad lib., will continue to grow at a higher adg for a longer time, but eventually, their adg rate will slow, even in the face of higher rates of daily feed intake, because, as they grow and begin to fatten, their feed conversion efficiency declines sharply. Remember, it takes 2.25 times more feed (energy) to put on a pound of fat than it does to put on a pound of protein (muscle). The economic consequences of this physiological phenomenon are two: it increases the cost/lb of gain and, secondly, the selling price/lb of the live goat usually decreases as it becomes larger and unacceptably fatter than current markets demand.

Note also in Table 1 that, as expected, larger goats have higher daily feed intake (dfi) than smaller goats, but, when dfi is expressed as a percent of body weight, larger goats cannot eat as much, proportionately, as smaller ones. Right when the larger goat is fattening and needs ever more feed/day, it simply cannot eat enough to sustain a high adg. Essentially, the economic principle of diminishing returns is mirrored in the diminishing feed conversion efficiency (fce)---one gets ever less return (gain and income) per unit of feed eaten and feed dollar spent; sooner or later, the net selling price/lb will not cover the cost per pound of gain (and overhead). When the cost of feed and overhead for the next pound of gain exceeds the selling price of that pound, it is time to load and go.

At the conclusion of this trial in November of 1997, choice slaughter goats in the 40 to 80 pound range were selling at the San Angelo, TX. auction for $.86/lb. Referring to line 10 of Table 1, it is apparent that the feed cost/lb of gain, not to mention overhead, exceeded the selling price/lb received except for the Boer x Spanish cross group.

Readers will recognize that, if these wethers had been purchased at less than the $.86/lb selling price (e.g. $.70/lb), then a profit on the purchased weight could have been made ($.86 - $.70 = $.16/lb x pounds of purchase weight). Growing and fattening (finishing) of weanling or stocker goats in a typical, intensive feedlot environment is not for faint hearts or shallow pockets. Assuming adequate disease control and low death loss, feed-lotting can be done. However, to win, the trifecta of feed cost, fce and sale price must be sufficiently advantageous. One is somehow reminded of the dicey probability of lining up those required three fruits on a slot machine.

Turning now to carcass information, we again tabulate by breed groups. Table 2 shows gross carcass characteristics while Table 3 presents retail cut yields and values. The goats were slaughtered serially over a period of a few days following the end of the feeding trial but were again weighed just prior to slaughter. All chilled carcasses were first divided into fore and hind halves by cutting transversely between the 12th and 13th rib. Each half was then fabricated into selected retail cuts and edible scrap, with non-edible scrap/bone being the difference between cold carcass weight and saleable cuts plus edible scrap. (See Fig. 1.)

In Table 2, the characteristics measured and the average values per group found are not very different with the possible exception of the purebred TMG wethers which had appreciably higher hot and cold carcass yields (%). We will report shortly in The Goat Rancher further carcass work with TMG, Boer and Spanish purebreds.

The size of the ribeye (12th rib) muscle is of economic value and breeder interest to cattle and sheep producers and processors. However, goat processors do not seem to exhibit much concern for ribeye size, most probably because well over 90% of carcasses are sold whole to retailers who, on demand, cut and sell halves, quarters and, only rarely, smaller individual cuts. Perhaps as, and if, restaurants and supermarkets become more interested in larger (40 lb. plus) carcasses (possibly from ‘finished’ goats), they too may come to prefer larger ribeyes. Readers should note in Table 2, item 12, that when ribeye measurements of various sizes in a collection of carcasses are compared on a per/pound of cold carcass basis, the observed differences all but disappear. Accordingly, you should understand that many, if not all, of the observable differences in sizes of ribeye from goats (of various breeds, sizes, condition, etc.) are due to size of carcass, not to breeding, feeding, etc.; see Fig. 2.

Regarding Table 3, we show the saleable yields of the chosen cuts from the rear and front halves and also the non edible waste, sometimes referred to as “cutting loss”. The ratios of these items (items 15 and 18) have obvious economic consequence. Readers should especially note that, in this trial, the weights of liver, heart and kidneys were not taken nor were they assigned any dollar values in the retail sale calculation. This decision had the effect of lowering the retail yields by approximately 1.2 lb./carcass or about 3% yield (which would be now worth about $3.00).

In earlier times, slaughter plants gained revenue from the sale of non-edible offal(viscera, bone, blood, hides, etc.), but, currently, they usually have to pay additional sums for its removal. Goat hides may draw $1-$2 each, or zero, or be an offal-removal cost, depending on the operation.

Please refer briefly to Table 2, line 7, to note that the Boer crossbred’s cold carcass dressing percentages averaged 46.5% (range 45.3% to 48.1%) while the TMG yielded 53.5%, a 15% advantage (53.5% divided by 46.5 %). Urban abattoir personnel tell us that 45-47% cold carcass yields are typical for commercial goats and that 50-53% is the exception. In Table 3, lines 15 and 16 show the yield of saleable cuts, by weight and as a percentage of the cold carcasses. The retail yield for the Boer crossbreds ranged from 86.5 to 88.9% (ave. 87.8%) while the TMG average was 92.2%, a further advantage of 5.0% (92.2% divided by 87.8%) for the TMG (explained in part by its noticeably lower percentage(7. of non-edible scrap, line 18).

The value of retail cuts (line 19) was calculated by multiplying the weight of individual cuts by the retail price of that cut and then summing. We report the 1997 Austin, Tx retail goat meat prices as:



In this price list, the double cut/bone-in rib chops at $2.69/lb (see Fig. 3) seem to be underpriced relative to the double cut/bone-in loin chops at $5.49/lb. Think of beef rib eye steaks (chops) vs. T-bone steaks (chops). The other hind- and forequarter cuts seem to us comparably priced in terms of edible meat, but, remember, very little commercial goat meat is yet sold in urban markets as individual cuts. Thus, current retail pricing patterns are not readily available for comparing to 1997 values.

The retail value per pound of cuts for the breed groups are shown on line 20, Table 3. The Boer crossbreds averaged $2.54/lb and the TMG averaged $2.79/lb, a TMG advantage of 9.8% ($2.79 divided by $2.54). The final carcass measurement, value of retail cuts per pound of shrunk live weight (line 21), favors the TMG by 20% ($1.24/$1.03 crossbred average). This higher crucial value for the TMG is due to a combination of factors: higher cold carcass yield (53.5%, line 7, Table 2), lower cutting loss (7.8%, line 18, Table #3) and higher average value per pound of retail cuts ($2.79/lb, line 20, Table 3).






Unfortunately, we had too few animals in each breed group and, secondly, there was too much individual difference within each breed group; we cannot, therefore, say that the TMG advantage was statistically significant. But, this data and other findings soon to be reported do suggest a rationale for doing further work with larger numbers of genetically representative TMG. Anecdotal experiences with Boer x TMG crosses (50%TMG x 50%Boer and 75% Boer x 25% TMG) by the authors and others seem quite promising; perhaps a “classic cross,” 5/8 Boer x 3/8 TMG, would be commercially useful. But, readers should note in Tables 1, 2 and 3 that the Boer x TMG/Nubian crossbreds were neither better nor worse than the other non-TMG x Boer crosses in either performance or carcass data. Much caution is urged regarding small-number breed comparisons. Too, superior carcasses, even if statistically real, may not necessarily come from animals of superior productive and/or reproductive performance; proceed with skepticism as your constant companion.

One last, but very instructive observation...line 22 in Table 3 shows the auction price per head a processor would have had to pay for the shrunk goat. Subtracting these figures from the retail values per carcass (line 19) gives the gross margins the processor/wholesaler and the retailer would have had to share to cover all their expenses and profits (line 23). These breed margins ranged from $20.98 to $12.77 and averaged $17.48/hd. The processor/wholesaler would have engendered procurement/shipping, hauling shrinkage, slaughter and carcass shrinkage costs and, of course, a profit. Thereafter, the retailer would have had expenses for transporting the carcass, possibly fabricating it into cuts and merchandising them, plus his mark up (i.e., profit).

The precise costs and exact profits from processing, distribution and retailing goat meat are proprietary and, accordingly, are not likely to be deeply researched by those desiring further life expectancies. Certain costs, however, may be estimated with some accuracy and, by comparing retail prices for hanging carcasses in, say, New York City, to known live goat prices in San Angelo, one can confidently speculate that processors and retailers each profit, perhaps $3-$7/carcass, on the average, across annual ever changing supply and demand pattern; after all, who can gainsay?

Conclusion:

None of the performance measurements were significantly different between the TMG and the various crossbred wethers.

The feed efficiencies and feed costs per lb of gain recorded herein demonstrate the economic uncertainties associated with finishing goats in intensive environments.

Although there were measurable differences in carcass characteristics between the TMG and Boer crossbreds, too few goat numbers and too much variation within breed groups made the results inconclusive, but certainly worthy of further investigations.

The gross margins between the aggregate retail sales values of the carcass components and the auction costs of the “finished” slaughter goats are sufficiently narrow to give pause to those contemplating options such as retained ownership, slaughter operations, value-added merchandising, etc. Extreme care should be exercised by those only partially informed of the perils and (presumed) profits from marketing goats beyond the farmgate.

[Mustang Sally Farm]

Marketing Slaughter Goats and Goat Meat Products in
                                        the United States

Dr. tatiana Luisa Stanton - Extension Sheep & Goat Associate
Northeast Sheep & Goat Marketing Program, Cornell University - Ithaca, NY 14853

Introduction
The survivability of our US meat goat industry is dependant on improving its accessibility and desirability to the huge base of goat meat enthusiasts right here in the US. National goat meat consumption has grown sharply. The goat slaughter rate at USDA inspected facilities climbed from 207,893 goats in 1991 to 595,501 goats in 2002 and 647,000 goats in 2003. Imports from our largest importer, Australia, increased from approximately 3 million pounds in 1990 to 17 million pounds in 2003. Assuming a 40 lb carcass, which is the largest carcass popular with most importers, this equals a minimum of 425,000 more goats.

Who Is Our Customer?
Increased consumption is driven by the popularity of goat meat with the diverse ethnic groups that immigrate yearly to the US. The popularity of goat meat with immigrants is not new. In the past, many of us immigrated to the US from countries where goat meat was popular. However, the perceived scarcity of goat meat in the US and the melting pot mentality discouraged people from holding on to their goat meat traditions. In recent years, we’ve seen a switch in philosophy to one that encourages people to celebrate their diverse cultural backgrounds. The introduction of South African Boer goats into the US received major publicity and helped make city dwellers more aware of the availability of goat meat. Approximately 10% of the US population is foreign born with ~51% of these first generation immigrants coming from Latin American and a substantial percentage of the remainder identifying themselves as Muslim. Most immigrants settle initially in metropolitan areas making it relatively easy to concentrate goat meat marketing in these areas. The Northeast US accounted for only 4.5% of the total US goat population in the 2002 Agricultural Census. However, due to the high concentration of recent immigrants in Northeast cities, the same region accounted for 47.5% of the goats slaughtered in federally inspected slaughterhouses. The low income base of many newly immigrated families, particularly refugees, initially suggests that pursuing these markets will tie farmers into a low price/low value product. People on a tight income may be attracted more to cull animals and to frozen, imported goat meat.

Australian and New Zealand supply a major portion of the imported goat meat sold commercially in the US. This market has been growing at an annual rate >30% since approximately 1990 and has been able to piggy-back on Australian and NZ lamb industries. With the help of US investors, Australia and NZ have been able to develop highly professional, centralized in-country slaughterhouses specifically for lamb export purposes. Companies like Australian Meat Holdings have been able to hold farmers to a consistent product, while compulsory government health programs have helped encourage some uniformity of management. It has been easy to include goats in these same processing and marketing enterprises. Furthermore, as part of the British Commonwealth, Australia and NZ have previous experience establishing substantial goat meat export markets to other Commonwealth nations (for example, Jamaica and India). Taiwan has traditionally been the largest importer of Australian goat meat. However, goat meat exports from mainland China to Taiwan are starting to take a substantial portion of this market share. The strength of the US dollar is still sufficient to make it unlikely that we can compete profitably with Australia let alone China for these export markets. Rather, we need to ensure that locally produced goat meat is viewed as more desirable than imported product by US consumers.
It is estimated that approximately 90% of the goat meat imported from Australia is harvested from extensively managed “feral” goats. Quality may be inconsistent and these enterprises are generally not viewed as a lucrative, growing trade. Carcasses are shrouded in plastic or boxed as 6 primal cuts (“6 packs”) and frozen and transported by boat to the US. A benefit of this less expensive, year round product is that it keeps families in the habit of consuming goat meat. However, a growing portion of Australian and New Zealand goat meat is available as flown-in cryovaxed fresh carcasses and retail cuts from export slaughterhouses that have been approved for USDA federal inspection. United States goat producers need to come up with serious rationale for why our own “homegrown” consumers should choose our goat meat over fresh imported product.

Luckily, many families become upwardly mobile as they establish themselves in the US. Even people on a tight budget prefer to splurge for locally slaughtered goats for weddings, funerals, and special feasts. There is also a strong trend in the US for the consumption of farm fresh product. Much of the focus of the US goat meat industry should be on making it easier for consumers and processors to obtain the goat meat product they desire year round. We need to insure that the children of immigrants are encouraged to continue these dietary preferences. It is counterproductive if goat meat is available only sporadically, specific carcass preferences are ignored, people are made to feel unwelcome when seeking out goat meat through established channels, or if our marketing infrastructure collapses in on itself and offers all of us fewer marketing choices. We do not need to limit ourselves to seeking out only an “ethnic” market but we better make sure that we nourish and acknowledge this market as the base of our existing demand.
Improving our accessibility

How do we make product available year round? Right now, we are probably lucky to have a supply of Australian goat meat for consumers to fall back on when US meat is scarce. However, this encourages distributors to abandon the US industry completely and market exclusively imported product. If we plan on expanding our US goat herd (and as we all know, goats multiply quite easily), we need to develop a base of producers who are willing to manage their herds more intensively either through accelerated breeding cycles or staggered kiddings to provide product more reliably year round. This is hard to do. Most of us are inclined to target peak demand times such as the Easter and winter holiday seasons, and Ramadan Id al Alha with their accompanying higher (sometimes) prices.

How do we make product easy to find? The events of September 11th and subsequent compulsory check-ins for immigrant men from certain countries have inadvertently resulted in many ethnic customers maintaining a very low profile. Where people might have felt comfortable stopping unannounced at your farm to ask if those goats in the front pasture are for sale, the same families may be very reticent today. We need to be assertive about finding new ways to contact different cultures about local availability of goat meat. Visiting mosques and foreign student associations, handing out business cards at auctions, sending press releases about their farms to cultural news journals and establishing on-farm live animal markets are some actions producers have taken.

How do we provide sufficient supply even for special holidays? As producers, more of us need to group together to pool animals for sale. These groupings do not need to be formal cooperatives particularly if they are 1) targeting one particular distributor and 2) the products are live slaughter goats. In order to easily locate dealers, distributors, packers, processors and transportation, we need to encourage the accumulation of web based marketing services directories across more regions than just the Northeast US. The number of smaller USDA slaughterhouses willing to slaughter sheep and goats are decreasing at an alarming rate. Helping to publicize these USDA slaughterhouses is crucial. Having easy places for producers to find contact information for buyers also increases our accessibility. However, many producers do not have the time to seek out buyers and investigate their credit status. Many buyers are also hesitant to deal direct. The development of large, graded sales where goat kids are grouped according to weight, age, and condition for a multitude of buyers is also very important. As part of this we need more sales willing to sell goats by the pound and more sales where prices paid are put on public record by a disinterested third party.

Improving Our Desirability
Bob Herr, a popular order buyer at the New Holland Sale, likes to say that there is a customer for every goat, a goat for every customer. It is important that producers educate themselves about the types of goats that are popular for various seasons. It is also important for producers to communicate well with their buyers to make sure they are accurately representing their animals and matching the animal to the market demand. This does not mean that the market is stagnant or does not appreciate some education from producers themselves. Many of us who market direct have experienced customers who initially were leery of meatier, possibly fatter, Boer X carcasses and then became more impressed upon seeing the carcasses hung next to a dairy breed or Spanish goat carcass. Many immigrant customers desire a tender, younger meat once both the husband and wife are working and faster cooking dinners become a priority. However, knowing how to contact and communicate with buyers and getting educated about the market is a first step in meeting customer desires.

Many ethnic customers are proud of their ability to judge the carcass suitability of a live animal. New York City has a long history of live poultry markets and in recent years many of these have expanded to include small ruminants. An animal can be purchased at them and then slaughtered at the on-site custom slaughterhouse. This is one market that Australia cannot compete with us for. However, state departments of agriculture may not be aware of the importance of these markets and could subject them to excessive regulation. Organizing annual meetings between state agriculture officials and representatives from statewide lamb and goat producer associations may help these agencies stay in touch with industry priorities. Live animal markets generally provide a wide range of animals to satisfy the diverse market demands of various cultures. In states where they are permitted, they provide a way for city dwellers to insure their own quality standards.

Desirability and acceptability of goat meat products for the general US public will be improved if slaughterhouses with religious exemptions handle animals as humanely as possible. As producers, we need to exert pressure on Halal slaughterhouses to adopt humane restrainers based on Temple Grandin designs.

Marketing Strategies To Get A Bigger Piece Of The Pie
There are many marketing strategies that producers can adopt to reap more of the market share of their goats. Almost all of these require an investment in extra labor and/or capital on the part of the producer.

One of the easiest marketing strategies is pooling. This is the gathering of animals from several farms together at one centralized pick-up point to offer a buyer a sufficient supply of animals. Arrangements need to be made for one person to represent all of you in negotiating price and to assign or pay a person to insure that animals meet the quality standards of the buyer.

In fall ‘2002, the Northeast Sheep & Goat Marketing Program at Cornell University helped link a pool of producers up with a live animal market in NYC. This live animal market had its own livestock truck and was thus able to deal directly with producers. Farmers were paid $1.15/lb live weight for weaned kids weighing 55 to 100 lbs minus an estimated 4% shrink. The buyer also paid $.85/lb live weight for cull does minus 4% shrink. The arrangement was sustained through the winter and early spring but eventually folded. Problems arose because 1) producers were unable to provide sufficient quantity of consistent product year round, 2) shrinkage loss was very variable from one type of animal to another (for example, fat cull does versus recently weaned kids), 3) the buyer could not find a reliable driver and thus trucked himself and had to justify his time away from his business, 4) the marketing coordinator found it difficult to enforce quality standards if the buyer did not proactively speak out on questionable animals.

Another way to deal directly with buyers is to organize on-farm live animal markets. These work when farms are within commuting distance to metropolitan areas with large meat goat consuming populations. They are dependant on your state having a relaxed interpretation of the exemption for custom slaughtering of farmer owned livestock. Similar to the NYC live animal markets, customers come on farm, purchase an animal and have it slaughtered at the on-farm slaughterhouse. These live animal markets often need to purchase animals from other farms to meet their demand. For example, a goat producer located between Buffalo and Rochester, NY found that despite raising approximately 150 kids from his own farm, he needed to purchase 490 goats from 17 other producers in 2003 for an average price of $70.72 to meet the needs of his live market/custom slaughterhouse business. He also purchased 162 goats from local auctions averaging $55.32 per goat.

Cuisine from goat consuming cultures has grown in popularity with an increasingly cosmopolitan U.S. mainstream population. The healthy profile of goat meat is also attractive to today’s consumer. The goat cheese industry has done a lot to destroy the public’s inhibitions against goat products and many people who pride themselves on a discerning palate are interested in trying goat meat. Producers can opt to market retail cuts direct to restaurants and consumers. A disadvantage of selling particular cuts to restaurants is the need to find a use for the rest of the carcass. Many ethnic restaurants, however, prepare recipes that use the whole carcass.

Selling direct to businesses on a year round basis is very labor consuming. It is best done either by producers who raise a diverse range of products and thus save time by marketing a multitude of products to each of their customers, by large producers raising goats fulltime, or by formal cooperatives. Another option is for a group of producers to get together and market directing to a buyer for one or two particular holidays each year when demand is high and may absorb their entire kid crop. Even when done by a cooperative, it is recommended that products be identified by farm name regardless of the overall brand. Many of the restaurants and retail stores interested in buying direct from farmers want to emphasize the actual farm source. A farmer or cooperative that breaks into the retail market or markets a branded product to distributors needs to insure that the price received will compensate them for the extra time needed to coordinate slaughter, processing, transportation and regular communication with buyers.
Tables 1 through 3 show actual prices received and expenses incurred for suckling Boer cross kids in 2004 through 3 different Northeast marketing channels. Table 1 represents an informal grouping of goat producers for Easter where one producer acts as coordinator and absorbs some of the costs himself. For example, the coordinator paid for all telephone calls associated with the shipments, purchased the plastic shrouds for wrapping carcasses, and steam cleaned and lined in plastic the stock trailer and pick-up trucks used to transport the carcasses. Dressing percentages ranged from 63% to 57 % although a few animals dressed as low as 50%. Cooler shrink from slaughterhouse to retail store ranged from 6.4% to 2.6%. Average carcass weight was 21 lbs. Farmers received returns of about $1.73 to $2.00 per lb live weight for kids weighing 30 to 55 lbs respectively. This did not include their transportation costs from farm to slaughterhouse. The previous year prices received from the same buyer were $3.90/lb dressed carcass, slaughter fee was $16 and price to transport carcasses through a refrigerated trucking company averaged $5.00 per carcass.